TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 


FREDERICK  NOBLE   EVANS 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 


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TOWN 
IMPROVEMENT 


A  REVIEW  OF  THE  PRINCIPLES  BY  WHICH  PHYSICAL  IMPROVEMENT 
IN   THE  TOWN   OR   CITY   MAY    BE    ACCOMPLISHED,   WITH 
OBSERVATIONS  AS  TO  THE  EFFECT  OF  SUCH  IMPROVE- 
MENT UPON  THE  LIFE  OF  THE  COMMUNITY 


BY 

FREDERICK  NOBLE  EVANS,  M.  L.  A. 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OF  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 

MEMBER  AMERICAN  SOCIETY  OF  LANDSCAPE  ARCHITECTS 
AMERICAN  CITY  PLANNING  INSTITUTE  AND  AMERICAN  CIVIC  ASSOCIATION 


ILLUSTRATED 


D.   APPLETON  AND   COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  LONDON 

1919 


COPYRIGHT,  Ipig,  BY 

D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


PRINTED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


"It  ain't  the  guns  nor  armament,  nor  funds  that  they  can  pay, 

But  the  close  cooperation  that  makes  them  win  the  day. 
It  ain't  the  individual,  nor  the  army  as  a  whole, 

But  the  everlastin'  teamwork  of  every  bloomin'  soul." 

RUDYARD  KIPLING. 


359G 


TO 

THE  MEMORY  OF 
CHARLES  MULFORD  ROBINSON 

LOVING  STUDENT  OF  TOWNS  AND  CITIES,   INSPIRING  TEACHER  AND  PRIEND 


PREFACE 

IT  is  the  aim  of  this  volume  to  present  to  the 
citizen  an  outline  of  everyday  methods,  suggesting 
ways  in  which  to  set  about  working  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  community  which  each  of  us 
affectionately  calls  "the  Home  Town."  The  terms 
town  and  city  are  used  interchangeably  throughout 
these  pages  and  therefore  what  is  said  applies  to 
the  large  city  as  well  as  to  the  small  town. 

The  student  of  sociology,  of  civil  government, 
and  of  business,  may  be  inclined  to  believe  that  too 
much  has  been  assumed  in  the  title,  since  we  deal 
almost  entirely  with  the  improvement  of  those 
physical  elements  of  which  the  town  is  made  up. 
In  its  broad  sense  town  improvement  implies  im- 
provement not  only  in  visible  and  tangible  things, 
but  in  other  lines  also.  These  several  aspects  are 
intimately  related,  however,  improvement  in  one 
leading  inevitably  to  improvement  in  the  others,  so 
that  we  may  say  that  we  can  approach  town  im- 
provement from  any  one  of  the  sides  mentioned. 

In  recent  years  the  study  of  civics  is  being  made 
more  and  more  a  part  of  the  regular  curriculum  in 
the  higher  grades  of  our  public  schools,  and  in  its 
more  advanced  form  is  being  studied  with  greater 

ix 


PREFACE 

seriousness  in  our  colleges.  The  acquisition  on  the 
part  of  the  prospective  citizen  of  a  sense  of  his 
relationship  to  public  affairs  is,  of  course,  the  aim 
of  such  study.  It  is  hoped  that  this  book  may 
contribute  some  part  to  this  end. 

Use  has  been  made  of  material  from  many 
sources,  and  credit  has  been  given,  it  is  hoped,  where 
due.  Special  acknowledgment  is  to  be  made  for 
criticism  and  suggestions  rendered  by  the  late 
Professor  Charles  Mulford  Robinson,  in  an  earlier 
stage  of  the  manuscript  production.  Thanks  are 
also  due  Dr.  John  Nolen  for  valuable  suggestions 
as  to  chapter  arrangement.  This  book  does  not 
pose  as  a  self-appointed  authority,  but  is  to  be 
taken  rather  as  a  guide.  It  is  not  really  a  book 
on  city  planning,  though  it  may  be  considered  an 
introduction  thereto. 

Most  of  the  examples  cited  and  practically  all  of 
the  illustrations  are  purposely  American.  This,  it 
is  thought,  may  serve  to  bring  home  the  idea  that 
our  own  municipalities  have  a  sufficiently  strong 
tradition  to  build  upon  without  relying  altogether, 
as  is  so  often  done,  upon  inspiration  from  abroad, 
valuable  as  that  is  in  its  proper  place  and  time. 
The  views  are  not  all  lovely  ones  for,  though  this 
would  make  a  more  beautiful  text,  it  would  be 
telling  but  half  a  truth. 

More  detailed  specific  comment  on  various  topics 
might  be  thought  desirable  to  enforce  and  further 

x 


PREFACE 

clarify  the  principles  expounded,  but  it  was  early 
seen  that  to  do  so  threatened  to  swell  the  covers 
beyond  intended  limits.  With  the  utmost  earnest- 
ness the  reader  is  urged  as  he  reads  to  call  to  mind 
scenes  and  conditions  in  his  own  town :  the  message 
which  the  book  is  meant  to  carry  will  thus  be  the 
better  enforced  and  the  small  seed  thus  planted 

will  be  more  apt  to  produce  fruit. 

FREDERICK  N.  EVANS. 
Urbana,  Illinois. 


x! 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

PREFACE ix 

INTRODUCTORY i 

I     FORCES  CREATING  THE  TOWN— ITS  LIFE  AND 

GROWTH      .                       9 

II     THE  TOWN  PLAN  IN  GENERAL 20 

III  THE  STREET  SYSTEM 30 

IV  TRAFFIC  CIRCULATION 41 

V     THE  RAILROAD  AND  THE  TOWN      ....  56 

VI     THE  WATERFRONT 69 

VII     PARKS  AND  OTHER  PUBLIC  OPEN  SPACES  .      .  77 

VIII     SCHOOLS,  SCHOOL  GROUNDS  AND  SCHOOL  GARDENS  92  **/ 

IX     PLAYGROUNDS  AND  NEIGHBORHOOD  CENTERS    :  104 
X     PROBLEMS  OF  SANITATION — WATER  SUPPLY  AND 

SEWAGE  DISPOSAL 114 

XI     PROBLEMS  OF  HEALTH,  COMFORT  AND  SAFETY  .  124 

XII     Civic  ART 141 

XIII  THE   EQUIPMENT   AND   FURNISHINGS   OF   THE 

STREET 161 

XIV  STREET  TREES  AND  OTHER  STREET  PLANTING     .  173 
XV     AMONG  THE  HOMES 192 

XVI     PAYING  FOR  TOWN  IMPROVEMENT    ....  209 
XVII     THE  Civic  SPIRIT  AND  ORGANIZATION  FOR  TOWN 

IMPROVEMENT 218 

CONCLUSION 232 

APPENDIX   I. — THE  LAUREL  HILL  ASSOCIATION  .  235 
APPENDIX  II.— QUESTIONS  IN  REVIEW  OF   THE 

TEXT 243 

xiii 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 


INTRODUCTORY 

TOWNS  and  cities  result  from  a  gathering  to- 
gether of  population  at  certain  points  for  facility  in 
the  transaction  of  business  and  the  enjoyment  of 
social  intercourse.  Each  town  marks  a  point  of 
concentrated  human  activity.  One  fact  which  we 
should  early  recognize  is  that  what  comes  about  as 
communities  appear  and  grow,  is  not  that  citizens 
come  together  with  the  idea  of  consciously  making 
a  town,  but  that  the  latter  grows  up  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  citizens. 

Where  people  live  together  in  large  numbers  their 
environment  should  be  made  as  healthful  and  as 
pleasant  as  possible.  It  is  a  good  thing  for  any 
town  if  its  citizens  are  able  to  say  of  it  that  they 
would  rather  live  there  than  in  any  other  place 
they  know.  It  is  a  bad  thing  for  any  town  if  the 
citizens  plan  to  come  there  only  in  order  to  accumu- 
late sufficient  wealth  to  live  somewhere  else;  yet 
such  towns  can  be  named. 


'  lt)WN  IMPROVEMENT 

The  General  'Re'lation  of  Town  and  Country. — 
If  we  were  to  divide  the  population  of  our  entire 
land  into  three  parts,  and  were  to  place  next  these 
divisions  the  term  "city,"  "town,"  and  "country," 
respectively,  we  should  be  able  to  form  a  rough,  but 
on  the  whole  a  reasonably  clear  idea  of  the  general 
conditions  under  which  the  people  of  our  nation 
live.1 

At  first  sight  one  is  apt  to  think  of  the  terms 
"town"  and  "country"— "urban"  and  "rural"— as 
opposed  one  to  the  other — even  as  antagonistic. 
The  more  we  look  into  the  matter  the  more  clearly 
we  see  that  the  two  are  interdependent.  Each  mode 
of  existence  draws  from  the  other  for  some  of  the 
necessities  of  life  which  the  other  produces. 

The  Divisions  "Urban"  and  "Rural"— We  shall 
not  distinguish  in  our  study  between  the  terms 
"city"  and  "town,"  but  shall  use  them  interchange- 
ably, thinking  of  both  as  "urban."  This  term  in 
the  U.  S.  Census  Report  for  1910,  is  applied  to  all 
communities  having  two  thousand  five  hundred  in- 
habitants or  more. 

The  ratio  of  urban  to  rural  population,  and  the 
relative  numbers  of  communities  of  various  sizes  in 
the  United  States,  is  illustrated  in  the  accompany- 
ing diagram  which  bears  careful  study. 

Urban  Drift. — The  number  of  people  who  live 

JF.  A.  Waugh,  lecture  at  University  of  Illinois. 


INTRODUCTORY 
DIAGRAM  I. 


POPULATION  STATISTICS 

CITIES  OF  U.S. 

I9IO 


PERCENTAGES  OF    TOTAL 
POPULATION  BY  CLASSES 


CHART  SHOWING  PERCENTAGE  OF  RURAL  AND  URBAN  POPULATION, 
AND  POPULATION  IN  CITIES  OF  VARIOUS  CLASSES. 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

amid  urban  surroundings  as  compared  with  the 
number  who  live  in  the  country  is  constantly  chang- 
ing, the  balance  during  the  whole  of  the  last  century 
swinging  to  the  side  of  the  city.  Rural  population 
has  increased  but  not  so  fast  as  urban  population.3 
There  has  been,  in  fact,  a  definite  drifting  of  popu- 
lation toward  our  towns  and  cities.  So  observable 
has  this  movement  been  that  it  has  had  a  special 
term  applied  to  it,  that  of  "urban  drift." 

The  movement  mentioned,  if  indefinitely  con- 
tinued could  have  no  other  result  than  the  impover- 
ishment of  agricultural  production,  upon  which,  in 
the  last  analysis,  the  business  and  indeed  the  life  of 
our  whole  population  depends.4 

The  cause  of  urban  drift  is  found  to  lie  in  the 
supposed  greater  attractiveness  which  life  in  a 
populous  community  offers.  The  inducement  of 
shorter  hours  of  work,  and  higher  wages,  modern 
sanitation,  convenience  in  getting  supplies  to  the 

*The  Census  Bulletin,  1910,  states  that  in  every  state  and 
territory  in  the  United  States,  there  has  been  since  1900,  an 
increase  in  total  population,  but  in  seven  states  there  has  been 
actual  decrease  in  rural  population. 

4  Far-sighted  persons  realizing  this,  have  sought  a  solution 
of  the  problem  in  endeavoring  to  make  rural  life  attractive, 
by  supplying  many  of  the  conveniences  and  much  of  the 
social  intercourse  which  is  offered  in  urban  existence.  The 
Country  Life  Movement  was  inaugurated  a  few  years  ago 
with  a  definite  commission  appointed  by  President  Roosevelt 
in  1908,  for  investigation  of  the  problems  concerned  in  it. 
See  L.  HL  Bailey  The  Country  Life  Movement,  p.  7,  et  al. 


INTRODUCTORY 

door,  and  facilities  for  amusement  and  social  inter- 
course, are  the  main  causes  which  have  led  many 
to  forsake  the  farm  and  take  up  urban  life,  even 
though  the  real  comforts  of  daily  living  prove,  in 
many  instances,  to  be  far  less.  Immigrant  popula- 
tion too5  has  flowed  into  crowded  parts  of  our  cities 
and  there  remained,  merely  in  order  that  the  new- 
comers may  be  near  others  of  their  own  kind. 

The  Rapid  Growth  and  Increasing  Complexity  of 
Towns  and  Cities. — So  rapid  and  marked  has  been 
the  growth  of  towns  and  cities  throughout  our  land 
during  the  past  hundred  years  as  to  have  led  to  the 
significant  statement  that  "the  last  century  belonged 
to  the  city."  5  Everywhere  there  have  sprung  up 
commercial  and  industrial  communities,  housing 
populations  earnestly  engaged  in  the  work  of  pro- 
duction of  one  kind  and  another. 

Being  a  thing  of  simple  parts  at  first,  a  town 
grows,  until  we  discover  in  the  metropolis  a  weld- 
ing together  of  scientific  forces  which  are  beyond 
the  ability  of  any  one  person  to  grasp.  The  city  has 
well  been  called  a  "machine  of  machines."  6  Every- 

5  In  1780  the  urban  population  of  our  country  was  said 
to  be  gathered  into  twelve  communities  worthy  of  the  name 
of  "city,"  comprising  4%  of  the  total  population  of  our  land. 
In  1900  there  were  545  such  communities  in  the  city  class, 
comprising  33%  of  the  total  population,  and  the  increase  is 
still  going  on,  e.g.,  in  1914,  it  has  been  shown  that  43%  of 
the  total  population  of  Illinois  resided  in  Chicago. 

8  The  Modern  City  and  Its  Problems,  by  F.  C.  Howe,  p.  4. 

5 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

day  sciences  are  rendering  it  a  still  more  compli- 
cated mechanism. 

The  Value  of  Early  Attention  to  Improvement. — 
In  the  rise  of  towns  and  cities  there  is  seen  a  de- 
velopment marked  in  many  places  by  makeshift 
methods  rather  than  farsightedness.  As  a  com- 
munity grows  its  needs  also  grow.  Once  adequate 
provision  for  water  supply  and  sewage  disposal  be- 
come antiquated.  With  modern  times,  new  methods 
of  street  paving  and  lighting  recommend  them- 
selves as  being  more  efficient  and  economical  than 
old  ones. 

The  town  is  a  thing  of  intensive  life.  It  is  or- 
ganic, never  at  a  standstill.  It  either  grows  or  it 
declines;  and  as  long  as  it  grows,  constant  atten- 
tion must  be  paid  toward  guiding  growth,  and  fit- 
ting it  physically  to  perform  its  function. 

The  fact  that  citizens  become  accustomed  to  petty 
inconvenience  and  unsightliness,  and  even  to  danger 
from  existing  conditions,  is  accountable  for  much 
lack  of  attention  to  improvement.  The  statement 
that  from  the  small  town  springs  the  larger  need 
hardly  be  made,  but  it  is  worth  while  to  point  out 
that  the  community  of  small  size  should  endeavor 
to  "get  right"  with  conditions  early  in  its  career. 
Larger  communities,  on  account  of  the  excessive 
cost  of  reconstruction,  are  often  compelled  to  toler- 
ate conditions  which  at  an  earlier  day  could  have 

6 


INTRODUCTORY 

been  remedied  by  one  stroke  of  the  draftsman's 
pencil.7 

The  Relation  of  Physical  Make-Up  to  the  Life 
of  the  Town. — The  science  of  medicine  has  shown 
that  a  human  being's  mental  attitude,  and  even  his 
tendencies  toward  good  and  evil  are  dependent  in 
a  surprising  degree  upon  the  condition  of  his  bodily 
makeup.  Readjustment  sometimes  changes  the 
patient's  whole  attitude  toward  life. 

The  same  fact  of  the  dependence  of  inner  con- 
ditions upon  physical  makeup  holds  true  in  the  case 
of  towns  and  cities.  A  clearing  up  of  a  clogged  and 
unorganized  street  system  means  more  business  effi- 
ciency. An  improvement  of  housing  conditions 
works  for  better  living  and  better  morals.  Sub- 
stitution of  good  in  place  of  poor  water  supply 
makes  directly  for  better  health,  and  finally,  bring- 
ing to  the  town  mind  a  sense  of  order  and  beauty 
in  place  of  filth  and  unsightliness,  will  go  far  to- 
ward making  for  self  respect  and  civic  pride,  and 
consequently  for  a  better  citizenship. 

Our  Study  of  Town  Improvement. — Though 
towns  and  cities  show  differences,  they  are  all  of 
them  alike  in  certain  respects.  Because  human 
tastes  and  instincts  are  very  much  the  same,  we 
find  that  communities  are  subject  to  similar  laws 
of  makeup.  Granting  this  likeness,  it  becomes  pos- 
sible to  take  up  the  study  of  improvement  in  an 

T  Below,  p.  45,  par.  I. 

7 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

impersonal  or  composite  way.  Principles  which 
apply  to  one  town  will  be  apt  to  apply  to  others. 

Summary. — In  the  last  century  there  has  been 
a  definite  movement  of  population  toward  towns 
and  cities.  This  movement  has  been  called  "urban 
drift."  The  chief  reasons  for  this  movement  have 
been  the  increase  of  industrial  development  in  our 
country,  and  the  attractiveness  of  urban  existence 
to  the  general  mind. 

Towns  and  cities  increase  in  complexity  of  life 
and  makeup  as  they  enlarge  and  grow  older.  This 
fact  makes  necessary  early  attention  to  the  proper 
arrangement  of  parts,  since  later  readjustment  is 
more  costly  and  often  even  impossible.  The  con- 
dition of  existing  physical  makeup  affects  closely 
the  inner  life  of  a  community. 

The  fact  that  towns  and  cities  exist  as  agencies 
serving  the  needs  of  beings  of  similar  tastes  and 
instincts,  facilitates  our  study  in  that  lessons  drawn 
from  the  experience  of  one  municipality  may  be 
applied  to  others. 


CHAPTER  I 

FORCES  CREATING  THE  TOWN— ITS 
LIFE  AND  GROWTH 

FEW  of  us  have  ever  paused  to  consider  how  our 
own  town  came  into  being.  We  have  taken  its  ex- 
istence for  granted.  But  our  town  did  not  just 
happen.  A  definite  force  called  it  into  existence  at 
the  very  point  at  which  it  grew. 

Forces  Creating  Towns. — Towns  are  to  be 
thought  of  then  as  having  logical  origin  and 
growth.  They  arise  as  has  been  already  said,  as 
the  result  of  human  needs.  Few  towns  are  made  to 
order.  "People,"  it  is  said,  "cannot  be  uprooted 
and  moved  in  large  numbers  and  immediately  adjust 
themselves  to  the  different  opportunities  of  a  new 
environment."  We  are  familiar  with  tales  of 
booms  and  subsequent  collapse  in  the  history  of 
communities  whose  coming  into  existence  or  whose 
later  growth  has  been  forced.  The  need  for  which 
towns  arise,  and  their  future  growth  can  be  antici- 
pated to  some  extent  it  is  true,  but  so  varied  are  the 
influences  affecting  their  being,  that  the  town 
planner  or  the  speculator  in  land  values  cannot  pre- 

9 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

diet  with  certainty  just  what  will  happen  beyond 
the  limited  period  of  a  few  years. 

The  forces  instrumental  in  the  creation  of  towns 
and  cities  are  fairly  easy  to  distinguish  at  the  out- 
set of  the  town's  history,  but  as  the  community 
grows,  early  purposes  and  aims  become  merged  into 
others.  A  glance  at  the  most  prominent  of  the 
forces  at  work  in  the  creation  and  growth  of  towns 
reveals  the  following:  *»  2 

1.  Defense  against  Enemies. 

2.  Commerce. 

3.  Manufactures  and  Industries. 

4.  Political  Forces. 

5.  Natural  Healthfulness  and  Attractiveness. 

6.  Social  Forces. 

Defense  against  Enemies. — The  principle  of  de- 
fense against  enemies  was  one  of  the  chief  factors 
in  the  rise  of  towns  in  primitive  times.  Men  first 
gathered  together  for  the  common  protection  of 
life  and  property.  The  rise  of  most  of  the  cities 
of  ancient  times  is  to  be  traced  directly  to  this 
origin.  Athens  grew  about  the  Acropolis — a  high 
hill  which  could  be  readily  defended  and  far 
enough  removed  from  the  seacoast  to  be  safe  from 
invasion  by  sea.  Paris  grew  up  upon  the  small 

1  The  consideration  of  these  forces  is  drawn  with  some 
modification  from  the  excellent  work  of  R.  M.  Kurd,  Prin- 
ciples of  City  Land  Values,"  pp.  19-21. 

3  Cf .  The  American  City,  by  Henry  C.  Wright,  Chap.  I. 

10 


FORCES  CREATING  THE  TOWN 

islands  of  the  Seine,  surrounded  by  swampy  land 
to  the  north  and  south.  Many  of  the  towns  of  Eng- 
land and  the  Continent  grew  from  early  Roman 
Camps.  The  suffix  "Chester"  attached  to  the  names 
of  many  English  towns  is  but  a  perversion  of  the 
Latin  castra,  camp. 

The  influence  of  this  force  in  the  creation  of 
towns  is  none  the  less  apparent  in  our  own  country. 
A  number  of  the  cities  along  the  Atlantic  coast 
owe  their  existence  primarily  to  the  idea  of  de- 
fense, New  York,  formerly  New  Amsterdam  may 
be  said  to  have  arisen  under  the  shadow  of  the 
old  Dutch  fort,  at  the  point  of  Manhattan  Island.3 
From  this  crude  redoubt  has  arisen  the  most  splen- 
did of  our  American  cities. 

Parallel  with  the  thought  of  protection  against 
enemies,  we  find  a  gathering  of  inhabitants  about 
the  walls  of  medieval  monasteries.  In  our  own  land 
many  of  the  towns  of  California  owe  their  origin 
to  the  settlements  which  rose  about  the  old  Spanish 
missions.  As  time  goes  on  this  factor  of  defense 
becomes  of  less  and  less  importance  in  the  rise  of 
towns.  Whereas  the  force  first  considered  was 
that  of  "safety  in  numbers,"  later  soil  more  favor- 
able to  town  growths  was  to  be  found. 

Commerce. — A  second  influence  is  that  of  com- 
merce. The  transportation  of  commodities  from 

8Cf.  Irving*s  Knickerbocker  History  of  New  York  for  a 
humorous  account  of  early  New  York  Life. 

II 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

one  part  of  the  earth  to  another  has  ever  been, 
next  to  the  primitive  end  of  securing  safety  and 
protection,  one  of  the  most  important  activities  of 
mankind.  To  exchange  that  which  one  has  in 
superfluity  for  something  of  which  one  has  need 
for  the  comforts  and  conveniences  of  life  is  the 
underlying  idea  of  commerce.  Where  the  flow  or 
transportation  is  uninterrupted  from  source  to 
destination  the  direct  influence  of  commerce  on  the 
growth  of  cities  is  comparatively  slight,  but  where 
there  is  a  definite  break  in  the  transfer  of  goods 
from  one  route  to  another,  as  from  ships  to  train,  or 
from  one  railroad  line  to  another,  facilities  for  the 
handling  of  these  are  necessitated.  The  establish- 
ment of  houses  for  persons  in  charge  of  the  work 
and  the  building  of  shops  of  many  kinds,  is  added 
to  the  problem,  until  we  find  springing  up  about 
such  points  towns  of  large  extent.  It  will  be  worth 
while  to  call  to  mind  such  cities  as  Liverpool,  San 
Francisco,  and  Boston  as  coast  cities,  Duluth, 
Chicago,  and  St.  Louis  as  interior  cities  at  the  side 
of  water,  and  Omaha  as  a  city  whose  existence  is 
mainly  owing  to  a  former  point  of  break  and  trans- 
fer in  an  overland  transportation  system.  New 
York,  a  site  primarily  selected  for  defense,  owes  its 
phenomenal  growth  to  the  fact  that  it  lies  at  the 
point  of  easiest  access  for  the  products  of  the  Mid- 
dle West  through  the  Appalachian  Range  to  the 
Atlantic  coast. 

12 


FORCES  CREATING  THE  TOWN 

Manufactures  and  Industries. — Manufactures  and 
industries  have  become  of  increasing  importance  in 
the  growth  of  towns  and  cities.  Indeed  it  may  be 
said  that  of  late  years  no  other  force  has  been  as 
powerful.  The  nineteenth  century  has  been  rightly 
spoken  of  as  "almost  exclusively  an  industrial  pro- 
duct/'4 As  diversified  industries  as  are  to  be  found 
in  this  country  never  before  existed  in  any 
country.5 

In  earlier  times  towns  and  cities  were  more  self- 
sufficient  than  we  find  them  to-day.  By  this  is 
meant  that  just  as  the  Colonial  homestead  was  the 
center  of  a  varied  industrial  life — supplying,  by  dint 
of  necessity,  its  own  needs,  so  the  town  of  former 
times  was  much  more  industrially  independent  than 
that  of  the  present.  Our  towns'  industries  are  becom- 
ing specialized  in  a  way  never  before  dreamed  of; 
for  example,  with  reasonably  cheap  transportation 
a  town  in  Michigan  can  devote  its  industrial  en- 
ergies almost  exclusively  to  the  manufacture  of 
parlor  sofas,  and  depend  on  a  city  that  is  hun- 
dreds of  miles  away  for  the  supply  of  its  break- 
fast food. 

The  creation  of  towns  solely  by  manufactures  is 
not  common.6  As  a  rule  industries  are  drawn  to 

4  The  Modern  City  and  Its  Problems,  by  F.  C.  Howe,  p.  48. 

'Noticeably  rapid  growth  in  manufacturing  towns  is  to  be 
seen  in  the  United  States,  England,  and  Germany,  where  in- 
dustrial growth  has  been  very  extensive. 

'We  do  find  instances  of  towns  such  as  Pullman,  Illinois, 

13 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

the  town  after  its  establishment,  attracted  there  by 
facilities  for  transportation  and  means  for  the 
housing  of  employees,  reasonably  cheap  land  for 
building  sites,  and  abundant  water.  Such  has  been 
the  case  of  such  towns  as  Akron,  Ohio,  which  in  a 
period  of  seventeen  years  has  shown  a  quadrupling 
of  its  population,  owing  to  the  enormous  growth  of 
the  rubber  business. 

Political  Forces. — Though  accountable  for  the 
establishment  of  but  few  towns  and  cities  as  com- 
pared with  the  forces  spoken  of,  political  considera- 
tions have  been  accountable  for  the  rise  of  some 
very  important  cities.  Petrograd  and  Berlin  owe 
their  situation  to  the  fact  that  they  were  considered 
geographically  desirable  locations  for  the  capitols 
of  nations.  Washington,  D.  C.  was  located  quite 
arbitrarily,  as  a  convenient  point  in  respect  to  the 
thirteen  original  states,  which  lay  along  the  At- 
lantic coast.  Evidence  of  the  same  force  may  be 
seen  in  the  location  of  such  capitol  cities  as  Colum- 
bus, Ohio;  Sacramento,  California,  and  Springfield, 
Illinois. 

Once  such  cities  have  been  established,  their 
growth  is  assured  in  proportion  to  the  prosperity 
and  political  importance  of  the  state  or  nation 
which  they  represent. 

Gary,  Indiana,  and  others  which  have  risen  about  the  estab- 
lishment of  industrial  interests  at  those  points.  At  Pullman 
were  established  the  works  of  the  Pullman  Car  Company,  and 
at  Gary  a  large  steel  industry. 

14 


FORCES  CREATING  THE  TOWN 

Natural  Health  fulness  and  'Attractiveness  of 
Site. — Certain  towns  in  Florida,  in  California,  in 
the  mountains,  and  elsewhere,  owe  their  founding 
to  the  fact  that  they  offer  to  those  in  search  of  more 
pleasant  environment  a  good  climate,  pure  air,  and 
beauty  of  scene.  Denver  and  Colorado  Springs 
furnish  us  with  examples  of  this.  Some  communi- 
ties, such  as  Battle  Creek,  Michigan,  and  Saratoga, 
New  York,  have  come  into  prominence  as  places 
where  sanitaria  or  springs  are  situated. 

Social  Forces. — A  force  more  subtle  than  those 
named  is  that  called  the  social  force.  Though 
its  operation  is  sometimes  the  reason  for  the  town 
being  founded;  more  generally  it  is  the  cause  of 
later  development.  Many  towns  owe  their  growth 
if  not  their  founding  to  the  fact  of  an  educational 
institution  being  established  there  as  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts,  which  is  the  seat  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity. The  social  force  naturally  gains  in  mo- 
mentum as  the  town  enlarges.  Where  numbers 
gather  together,  there  others  congregate,  not,  at  the 
present  day,  because  there  is  safety  in  numbers,  but 
because  in  numbers  there  is  inspiration.  This  social 
force  is  largely  accountable  for  New  York's  late 
growth,  and  for  that  of  other  prominent  cities 
which  one  may  call  to  mind.  Pleasure  resorts  owe 
their  development  to  this  social  element.  This  force 
is  evident  in  many  less  prominent  communities ;  we 
have  only  to  recall  instances  of  the  moving  of  re- 

15 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

tired  farmers  into  town  giving  as  a  reason  that  "that 
is  where  the  old  friends  are." 

The  Life  Cycle  of  the  Town. — As  towns  and  cities 
grow,  we  usually  find  evidence  in  their  life  of  several 
or  all  of  the  creative  forces  mentioned;  for  ex- 
ample, a  town  which  grew  up  as  a  shipping  point 
may  develop  into  a  community  in  which  industries 
are  first. 

Constant  change  and  progression,  is  taking  place 
within  the  town  itself.  Sections  in  it  devoted  to 
one  activity  may  be  later  devoted  to  another.  The 
retail  shopping  district  in  cities  is  often  seen  moving 
gradually  on  into  the  older  residence  section,  which 
in  turn  retreats  unwillingly,  but  steadily  before  it. 

An  interesting  parallel  can  be  observed  between 
the  life  cycle  of  a  town  and  that  of  a  living  body. 
Both  pass  from  youth  into  adolescence  and  on  into 
maturity.  In  the  history  of  the  town's  life  there 
is  apparent  a  real  struggle  for  existence.  Some 
towns  survive  for  centuries,  are  almost  eternal, 
others  have  passed  into  oblivion  or  are  remembered 
only  in  classic  story.  The  demise  of  a  town  may 
have  been  violent  and  sudden,  as  from  earthquake, 
volcanic  burial,  fire  or  flood,  or  it  may  have  been 
slow  and  gradual.  The  ancient  and  prosperous  city 
of  Ephesus,  mentioned  in  Scripture,  died  a  natural 
death,  due  to  the  filling  in  of  its  once  excellent  har- 
bor by  drifting  sand.7  In  dredging,  harbor  cities 

'Principles  of  City  Land  Values,  by  R.  M.  Kurd,  p.  22. 

16 


FORCES  CREATING  THE  TOWN 

to-day  possess  a  means  of  continuing  life  which  the 
cities  of  ancient  times  did  not  have.  As  in  the 
case  of  human  ills,  modern  science  has  come  to  the 
rescue.  A  town's  death,  on  the  other  hand,  may  be 
due  entirely  to  economic  reasons,  as  when  there  is 
no  longer  a  demand  for  a  certain  commodity  pro- 
duced, or  to  an  exhaustion  of  a  once  abundant  ore. 
This  has  come  about  in  the  history  of  many  of 
the  gold  mining  towns  in  the  West.  The  com- 
munity's growth  is  then  checked,  its  formerly  busy 
stores  are  closed  and  its  inhabitants  move  away. 

Under  favorable  conditions  the  life  of  towns  and 
cities  is  of  indefinite  length,  the  chances  of  winning 
through  and  of  becoming  a  great  city,  depend  partly 
upon  economic  conditions,  and  partly  upon  the 
character  and  energy  of  the  citizens.  Temporary 
disasters  offer  only  temporary  hardship.  San  Fran- 
cisco, in  its  early  history  is  said  to  have  been  burned 
six  times  in  eighteen  months,8  but  so  dauntless  was 
the  determination  of  the  forty-niners,  and  so  dis- 
ciplined were  they  to  hardship,  that  the  city  rose 
again  and  again,  even  as  it  has  in  its  present  form 
after  the  disastrous  fire  of  1906. 

The  Town  as  an  Organism. — The  suggestion  of 
the  life  cycle  through  which  the  town  passes,  and 
the  fact  of  its  increasing  complexity9  leads  to  a 

"Ref.   An   Intimate   History   of   California,   by   Gertrude 
Atherton,  p.  151. 
'Above,  p.  5,  par.  2. 

17 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

consideration  of  the  town's  organic  character.  All 
of  its  elements,  such  as  markets,  public  buildings, 
streets,  and  transportation  facilities  are  the  result 
of  a  clear  evolution,  arising  from  necessity.  An 
interdependence  exists  between  all  parts,  each  con- 
tributing toward  the  fulfillment  of  the  purpose  of 
the  whole. 

In  the  business  section  of  the  city  we  have  what 
resembles  the  heart  of  this  municipal  organism; 
in  the  flow  of  life  along  the  streets  and  in  the 
water  and  sewer  mains  buried  in  the  ground,  we 
have  a  distinct  circulatory  system.  The  lungs  of 
the  city  are  the  parks  and  open  spaces,  which  must 
be  of  sufficient  size  and  number  to  supply  the  city 
population  with  needed  fresh  air.  The  highways 
and  railroads  are  like  hands  reaching  out  to  bring 
in  nourishment.  The  city  has  a  mouth  in  the  point 
of  entrance  of  highways  and  railroads.  Further, 
in  its  electric  light  and  telephone  lines  we  find  a 
nervous  system  not  unlike  that  of  a  living  body. 
In  its  administrative  center  there  is  evidence  of  a 
mind  controlling  action;  finally  it  may  be  said  that 
in  the  aspirations  and  sentiment  of  its  citizenship, 
the  city  gives  evidence  of  having  a  soul.  When  all 
is  said  and  done,  it  is  for  the  nourishing  and  de- 
velopment of  this  that  the  other  agencies  are 
designed. 

Individuality  of  Towns. — All  towns  possess  in- 
dividuality. Even  when  climate  and  geographic 

18 


FORCES  CREATING  THE  TOWN 

situation  seem  to  decree  that  communities  should  be 
made  in  the  same  mold,  we  find  that  towns  like 
people,  steadily  refuse  to  be  produced  identically 
alike.  Conditions  of  site,  of  purpose,  and  finally  of 
individual  taste  prevent  it.  We  need  not  go  to  our 
Baedeker,  nor  to  a  collection  of  maps  to  see  the  im- 
mense variety  that  may  be  found  in  ground  ar- 
rangement. Even  supposing  that  town  layouts 
were  identical,  there  would  still  be  found  differ- 
ences in  the  form  of  buildings  and  street  furnish- 
ings that  would  render  towns  unlike  in  appearance. 
To  the  town  improver  this  individuality  is  a  very 
real  and  interesting  thing.10 

Summary. — Towns  are  not  made  to  order; 
rather,  their  rise  is  the  result  of  certain  human 
needs  at  certain  points.  The  principal  forces  call- 
ing towns  into  existence  are  the  following :  ( i )  De- 
fense Against  Enemies ;  (2)  Commerce;  (3)  Manu- 
factures and  Industries;  (4)  Political  Forces;  (5) 
Natural  Healthfulness  and  Attractiveness;  (6) 
Social  Forces. 

Towns  and  cities  pass  through  a  life  cycle  in 
progressing  from  youth  to  maturity.  Constant 
change  and  progress  is  going  on  in  the  life  of  the 
town  as  a  whole,  and  in  its  various  parts. 

The  community  is  comparable  to  a  living  organ- 
ism with  various  organs  evolved  from  use.  Towns 
possess  marked  individuality. 

10  Cf.    Town  Planning   in  Practice,  by   Raymond  Unwin, 
Chap.  II. 

19 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  TOWN  PLAN  IN  GENERAL 

LET  us  take  up  the  plan  of  some  town,  preferably 
a  plan  with  which  we  are  not  familiar,  because  such 
a  plan  will  help  our  present  impersonal  examination. 

Look  at  this  plan.  Prominent  on  the  sheet  before 
us  are  to  be  seen  curious  double  lines  which  cross 
and  recross  at  different  angks.  Toward  the  center 
the  lines  converge  and  become  irregular.  These  are 
the  streets.  Though  they  are  the  most  noticeable 
thing  by  far,  they  do  not  entirely  constitute  the 
plan.  It  is  in  the  areas  that  lie  between  that  the 
real  life  of  the  town  is  carried  on.1  (Vid.  Diagram 
II-A.) 

Looking  further  at  the  plan  before  us  we  see 
black  lines  representing  railroads  crossing  the  sheet 
seemingly  at  random.  We  see  also  areas  showing 
the  position  of  parks.  Shaded  forms,  like  small  toy 
building  blocks,  represent  schools,  hospitals  and 

*A  helpful  suggestion  is  that  of  regarding  the  town  plan 
as  made  up  of  solids  and  voids — the  solids  being  the  blocks 
or  space  between  streets,  the  voids  the  streets  themselves. 
—Figure  used  by  F.  L.  Olmsted,  Lecture,  Havard  University. 

2O 


THE  TOWN  PLAN  IN  GENERAL 

other  public  structures.  Here  and  there  are  irregu- 
lar spots  marking  the  sites  of  industries.  If  we 
were  to  take  up  another  town  plan  we  should  notice 

DIAGRAM  H-A. 


THE  PLAN  OF  A  TYPICAL  MODERATE-SIZED  AMERICAN  COMMUNITY. 

that,  though  it  showed  an  entirely  different  pattern 
of  lines  and  areas,  much  the  same  features  would 
be  found  scattered  over  it;  in  other  words,  it  is  to 


21 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

a  certain  extent  similar  to  the  plans  of  other  com- 
munities. 

The  Town  Plan;  A  Patchwork  of  Activities.— 
This  plan  is  the  skeleton  as  it  were  of  an  underly- 
ing patchwork  of  activities,  representing  the  town 
or  city's  life.  (Vid.  Diagram  II-B.)  For  conveni- 
ence the  most  important  of  these  activities  may  be 
named  as  follows: 

1.  Business  and  commercial. 

2.  Industrial. 

3.  Governmental  or  administrative, 

4.  Educational. 

5.  Health  and  Recreational. 

6.  Residential. 

As  we  study  plans,  we  find  that  there  is,  broadly 
speaking,  a  usual  place  or  position  on  the  map 
where  each  of  the  activities  mentioned  is  to  be 
found.  We  can  even  speculate  with  reasonable  ac- 
curacy on  a  strange  plan  as  to  what  sort  of  activity 
is  most  in  evidence  at  any  particular  point.  Recog- 
nizing certain  lines  as  streets,  others  as  railroads 
and  shore  lines,  and  noting  their  arrangement,  we 
may  read  the  past  life  history  of  the  town,  a  good 
deal  as  the  geologist  reads  the  story  of  the  elements 
from  a  rock's  surface,  or  as  a  forester  tells  the  con- 
ditions under  which  a  tree  grew,  by  its  general 
shape  and  branching.  Let  us  examine  into  the  ac- 
tivities named, 

22 


THE  TOWN   PLAN   IN   GENERAL 

Business  and  Commercial. — The  point  of  con- 
vergence of  street  lines  that  one  sees  on  the  plan 


DIAGRAM  II-B. 


GOVERNMEMTAL 

BUSINESS 

INDUSTRIAL 

EDUCATIONAL 

RECREAJ 

RiSIDENTIAL 


THE  SAME  PLAN  WITH  THE  LOCATION  OF  VARIOUS  ACTIVITIES 
MARKED  IN  PATCHWORK  FORM. 

coincides  in  a  general  way  with  the  business  center 
of  the  city.  Here  property  values  are  highest,  and 
here  business  acitivity  is  most  concentrated.  The 

23 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

business  of  a  down-town  district  is  of  several  kinds, 
consisting  of  (i)  the  shipping  and  warehouse  sec- 
tion, where  incoming  or  outgoing  commodities  are 
handled.  This  portion  lies  naturally  near  railroads 
or  water  shipping  points.  (2)  The  wholesale  section, 
where  goods  are  stored  pending  distribution  to  re- 
tail merchants.  This  usually  lies  between  the  ship- 
ping and  the  retail  district.  (3)  And  lastly,  the  re- 
tail and  office  section,  which  lies  near  the  center  of 
the  town  within  easiest  access  from  all  parts. 

Industrial  Section. — The  industrial  district  is 
commonly  removed  from  the  heart  of  town,  in 
proximity  to  some  water  body  and  to  railroad  lines, 
typically  toward  the  edge,  though  as  towns  expand, 
industrial  plants  may  be  found  well  within  the 
town's  limits. 

Government  and  Administrative. — The  adminis- 
trative center  may  be  looked  for  just  apart  from 
the  retail  business  center,  its  most  favorable  loca- 
tion as  regards  town  activity  being  in  a  position 
which  does  not  cause  a  division  of  the  retail  busi- 
ness district. 

Educational. — Features  in  this  group  include 
schools  of  all  kinds,  churches,  libraries,  art  galleries, 
theaters,  etc.  The  location  of  these  varies  accord- 
ing to  local  needs.  Generally  schools  and  churches 
lie  within  the  residence  section;  libraries,  art  gal- 
leries and  theaters  are  naturally  found  more 
centrally  located. 

24 


THE  TOWN  PLAN  IN  GENERAL 

Health  and  Recreational. — In  the  health  and 
recreational  group  belong  plants  for  water  supply 
and  sewage  disposal,  hospitals,  and  park  areas, 
whose  typical  situation  is  away  from  the  business 
center  and  nearer  the  edge  of  town.  However, 
among  the  latter  are  open  spaces  distributed 
throughout  the  town,  in  general  the  smaller  toward 
the  center,  the  larger  farther  out. 

Residential. — The  homes  of  the  citizens  claim 
more  of  the  town's  area  than  any  other  of  the 
activities  mentioned.  They  permeate  all  parts,  even 
the  crowded  downtown  portion  where  people  are 
to  be  found  living  above  shops  and  perhaps  in 
crowded  tenements.  For  the  most  part  the  resi- 
dential section  forms  an  irregular,  broad  outer  rim, 
the  extensive  homes  being  farthest  removed,  the 
smaller  lying  nearer  to  the  center.2  A  noteworthy 
fact  in  this  connection,  brought  out  by  J.  S.  Nettle- 
ford,  is  that  poor  people  live  on  more  expensive,  the 
rich  on  cheaper  land. 

The  Location  of  Towns. — "Location"  and  "site" 
are  not  identical.  The  term  location  in  its  broad 
sense  is  closely  linked  with  the  purpose  for  which 
the  town  came  into  existence.  Site  has  to  do  with 
the  existing  topographical  features  in  a  particular 
vicinity. 

'The  retirement  of  homes  before  the  on-creeping  business 
section  has  been  spoken  of  above.    Chap.  I,  p.  16,  par.  3. 

25 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

There  are  various  general  purposes  which  towns 
serve,  as  evidenced  by  their  location:  there  is,  for 
example,  the  seaport  town  found  usually  in  a  bay, 
where  shelter  from  the  high  seas  may  be  secured 
to  shipping.  Such  a  town  is  usually  situated  at  the 
innermost  point  where  the  carry  by  water  may  be 
for  as  great  a  distance  as  possible.3  Philadelphia 
is  such  an  example.  Lakeport  towns,  as  Duluth 
and  Buffalo,  correspond  with  this  group  in  location. 

Then  there  are  manufacturing  and  industrial 
towns,  located  at  points  where  raw  materials  can 
be  most  cheaply  assembled.  For  example,  the 
region  from  Pittsburgh  to  Cleveland  is  a  region  of 
iron  and  steel  mills;  at  this  point  coal  from  Penn- 
sylvania meets  the  iron  brought  from  the  upper 
lake  regions,  and  an  immense  industry  of  steel  mill- 
ing has  there  sprung  up.  Fruit  and  grain  towns 
are  located  at  the  shipping  center  of  the  regions 
where  such  products  are  raised.  The  list  might  be 
indefinitely  extended. 

The  Town  Site. — "Site"  implies,  as  has  just 
been  said,  a  consideration  of  local  topographic 
features  over  which  the  town  spreads,  features 
which  are  incorporated  into  the  plan  of  the  town 
as  it  develops;  thus  we  speak  of  a  level  site  or  an 
irregular  site,  having  in  mind  the  form  of  the 
ground  upon  which  the  town  grows.  Streams  and 
water  bodies  are  a  part  of  such.  The  effect  of  site 

8  Principles  of  City  Land  Values,  by  R.  M.  Kurd,  Chap.  III. 

26 


THE  TOWN   PLAN   IN  GENERAL 

upon  the  development  of  the  town  or  city  is  great, 
but  so  much  has  been  accomplished  by  the  in- 
genuity of  man,  enabling  towns  to  adapt  themselves 
to  site,  that  we  may  say  that  towns  grow  equally 
well  on  any  site,  though  naturally  some  sites  in- 
volve greater  problems  and  slower  growth  than 
others. 

The  Relation  of  Site  to  Civic  Beauty. — Beauty, 
ever  a  desirable  asset  for  a  town  or  city,  is  de- 
pendent in  a  comparatively  small  degree  upon  site. 
This  should  be  an  encouraging  thing  for  those 
towns  which  are  born  unblessed  with  natural  beauty 
of  location.  It  must  of  course  be  said  that  some 
locations  favor  beauty  more  than  others,  but  "of 
itself  (the  site)  can  neither  secure  nor  prohibit 
civic  beauty.  A  dozen  cities  make  some  pretense 
of  splendor  without  the  slightest  regard  for  the 
features  of  their  site,  and  a  hundred  are  plain  or 
ugly  on  a  site  that  might  have  been  rendered 
splendid."  4 

Two  further  considerations  in  regard  to  civic 
beauty  in  its  relation  to  site  are  worthy  of  notice; 
the  first  is  that  most  of  the  world's  great  cities  lie 
by  the  side  of  water,  and  the  second  that  most  of 
them  are  situated  on  uneven  ground.5 

*  The  Improvement  of  Towns  and  Cities,  by  C.  M.  Robin- 
son, Chap.   I,  p.   i. 
6Ref.  ibid.,  p.  3. 

27 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

The  Relation  of  Site  to  Utility. — Unlike  the  re- 
lation of  site  to  beauty,  the  relation  of  site  to 
utility  is  extremely  vital.  We  may  assume  a  town's 
original  location  to  be  due  entirely  to  a  regard 
for  ideas  of  use.  The  question  of  usefulness  being 
the  determining  factor  in  choice  of  site,  the  second 
consideration  is  whether,  as  the  town  grows  and 
expands,  it  has  made  the  most  of  the  site  upon 
which  it  stands.  The  original  activity,  be  it  flour 
mill,  wharf  or  warehouse,  may  be  trusted  to  have 
made  good  use  of  the  immediate  ground  upon  which 
it  was  placed,  else  another  site  would  have  been 
chosen.  A  vital  question  then  arises  concerning 
the  use  of  the  rest  of  the  area  round  about. 

Various  sites  suggest  various  uses  of  the  ground 
in  streets  and  open  spaces.  The  town  in  its  effort 
to  secure  efficiency  must  recognize  that  a  wrong 
use  of  the  site  or  topography  means  waste  and  dis- 
comfort to  the  town  itself. 

Summary. — The  town  is  a  patchwork  of  activi- 
ties more  or  less  similar  in  various  communities. 
These  activities  are:  i.  Business  and  Commercial, 
2.  Industrial,  3.  Governmental  and  Administra- 
tive, 4.  Educational,  5.  Recreational,  6.  Residential. 
Though  the  boundary  of  each  group  merges,  each 
has  a  typical  place  on  plan. 

The  location  of  a  town  or  city  is  closely  bound 
up  with  the  purpose  for  which  it  came  into  exist- 
ence. Site  has  to  do  with  topographical  conditions, 

28 


THE  TOWN  PLAN  IN  GENERAL 

and  plays  an  important  part  in  influencing  the  gen- 
eral layout  of  towns.  Though  a  beautiful  site  is 
favorable  to  natural  beauty,  beauty  may  be  secured 
by  a  town  having  a  commonplace  site,  through 
proper  effort  on  the  part  of  the  builders. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  STREET  SYSTEM 

THE  streets  were  seen  to  be  prominent  features 
on  the  plan.  Like  the  veins  and  arteries  of  the 
body,  their  business  is  to  conduct  the  currents  of 
life  on  their  way  from  point  to  point. 

The  Importance  of  Streets. — The  importance  of 
streets  to  the  life  of  the  community  is  very  great. 
In  the  history  of  civilization,  highways  have  always 
played  a  prominent  part.  Though  no  longer  the 
sole  means  of  communication  between  communi- 
ties, their  necessity  is  still  recognized,  as  proven  by 
the  fact  that  the  art  of  road  making  is  being  car- 
ried to-day  to  a  degree  of  perfection  never  before 
attained.  Of  such  recognized  importance  are  the 
streets  of  modern  cities  considered,  that  we  find 
the  department  of  streets  among  the  foremost 
activities  of  any  city  government. 

The  town  or  city  finds  it  expedient  to  devote 
a  larger  per  cent  of  its  area  to  streets  than  is  com- 
monly supposed.  The  amount  averages  from  20% 
to  40%  of  the  total  city  area.1  In  New  York, 

1  See  also  Town  Planning  for  Small  Communities,  by  C.  S. 
Bird,  p.  49. 

30 


THE  STREET  SYSTEM 

35%  of  the  area  is  taken  up  by  streets;  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  the  figure  is  as  high  as  54%.  The 
land  used  for  street  purposes  is  theoretically  of 
great  marketable  value.  It  is  evident  then  that 
streets  should  so  be  planned  that  valuable  land  be  not 
thrown  away,2  and  that  the  street  system  should 
render  a  proper  return  in  efficiency  to  the  city.  If 
the  streets  of  a  community  are  ill  planned,  an  extra 
burden  is  placed  upon  the  community.  Loss  of  time 
and  temper  are  but  a  part  of  the  toll  of  a  poor 
street  system;  direct  financial  loss  as  well  is 
entailed. 

Four  Types  of  Street  Systems. — The  types  of 
street  system  upon  which  towns  and  cities  have 
been  laid  out  are  in  the  main  four,  viz. : 

1.  The  Irregular  or  Meandering  Type. 

2.  The  Concentric  Type. 

3.  The  Diagonal  or  Radial  Type. 

4.  The  Perpendicular  Type. 

The  order  given  is  that  of  their  chronological 
or  historical  development.  It  will  be  necessary 
briefly  to  consider  these  types  one  by  one,  looking 

3  As  an  instance  of  the  value  of  the  area  laid  out  into 
streets,  "it  has  been  estimated  that  if  valued  on  the  same 
basis  as  adjacent  private  property,  land  reserved  for  streets 
would  be  worth  over  two  billion  dollars  in  New  York  City 
alone,  or  about  one-tenth  of  the  reckoned  value  of  all  the 
farm  land  in  the  United  States."  Principles  and  Methods  of 
Municipal  Administration,  W.  B.  Munro,  Chap.  Ill,  p.  74. 

31 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

for  the  merits  of  each  as  far  as  possible.     (Vid. 
Diagram  III.) 

The  Irregular  or  Meandering  Type. — The  free 
or  meandering  type  of  street  development  in  a 
town  results  in  most  cases  from  spontaneous 
growth — from  the  fact  that  the  town  has  grown 
without  previous  planning.  New  England  coast 
towns  furnish  interesting  examples  of  such  street 
arrangement.  The  type  does  not  necessarily  imply 
primitive  government,  though  it  is  frequently  an 
accompaniment  of  it.  Such  street  lines  result  from 
the  fact  that  obstructions  or  grades  of  uneven  land 
surface  have  caused  a  deviation  from  direct  lines 
of  travel. 

Since  a  route  around  a  hill  is  practically  as  short 
as  that  over  it,  and  since  there  is  a  distinct  gain 
in  the  easier  grade  thus  attained,  it  follows  that 
the  curving  street  is  not  an  illogical  method  of  lay 
out.  Indeed,  in  some  sections  distinct  advantages 
may  result  from  the  curved  street,  namely  in- 
creased interest  and  greater  attractiveness,  a  fact 
which  to-day  is  often  taken  advantage  of  by  real 
estate  developers  in  laying  out  tracts  upon  uneven 
ground.  Still  another  advantage  of  this  type  of 
street  system  in  a  residence  tract  is  a  discourage- 
ment of  through  traffic.3  This  type  loses  effective- 
ness, however,  where  directness  and  quickness  of 
getting  from  point  to  point  are  essential,  but  it  has 
1  Below  p.  46,  par.  2. 

32 


THE  STREET  SYSTEM 
DIAGRAM  HI. 


MEANDEKWO         TYPE 

Rom  pta  o£  LONDON 


CONCENTRIC    TYPE 

Rom  plan  of  MOSCOW 


PERPENDICULAR    TYPE 


....  DIAGONAL  or  RADIAL  TYPE 

®  Eton,  plan  of  PARIS         COT 


ILLUSTRATION   OF  VARIOUS  TYPES  OF  STREET  SYSTEMS. 
33 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

distinct  merits  where  easy  gradient  and  picturesque- 
ness  are  desired. 

The  Concentric  Type. — When  towns  outgrew  the 
necessity  of  surrounding  fortifications,  as  was  the 
case  of  many  of  the  medieval  towns  of  Europe,  the 
natural  procedure  in  the  establishment  of  new 
streets  in  outlying  areas  was  to  throw  out  a  ring 
of  new  thoroughfares  about  the  old  bastions  of  the 
town.  In  this  way  the  concentric  system  came  into 
existence.  The  city  of  Vienna  shows  an  example 
of  this  method  of  street  layout,  as  do  certain  parts 
of  the  city  of  Frankfort  and  Paris.  It  is  not  a 
common  type  in  America  for  the  reason  that  we 
have  not  had  the  stage  of  walled  towns  which  gen- 
erally preceded  it.  The  type  affords  an  easy  sys- 
tem of  passage  about  the  town  from  one  outer 
locality  to  another.  It  suggests  the  possibility  of 
the  boulevard  system  in  its  true  sense,  that  of  a 
circular  drive  about  the  edge  of  a  city.  German 
town  authorities  which  have  been  wont  to  give 
more  than  the  usual  attention  to  planning  for  future 
growth  have  frequently  planned  for  such  town  ex- 
tension by  a  series  of  outer  rings  or  zones  to  be 
occupied  when  the  growth  of  the  municipality 
should  warrant.  Such  plans  exhibit  the  concentric 
type  of  street  layout  mentioned. 

The  Diagonal  Type. — In  its  pure  form,  the 
diagonal  or  radial  type  is  a  distinctly  modern  Idea. 
However,  a  focusing  or  converging  toward  the 

34 


THE  STREET  SYSTEM 

center  of  inflowing  highways  and  arterial  thorough- 
fares is  to  be  found  to  some  extent  in  nearly  all 
towns.  The  true  radial  system  of  street  plotting  is 
a  French  development,  the  idea  resulting  from  the 
geometric  platting  of  the  great  royal  wooded  parks 
through  which  diagonals  were  cut  to  allow  hunting 
parties  to  get  quickly  from  point  to  point.  Briefly 
speaking,  the  diagonal  system  consists  of  a  con- 
vergence of  certain  streets  at  one  or  more  points 
on  the  town  plan,  the  diagonal  way  'represent- 
ing routes  of  direct  access  between  them.  Each 
focal  point  thus  becomes  a  hub,  star,  or  "round- 
point,"  as  it  is  called,  from  which  radiate  the 
various  converging  lines  as  can  be  seen  on  any 
plan  of  Washington,  D.  C,  laid  out  by  Major 
Charles  Pierre  1'Enfant,  under  the  direction  of 
General  Washington  a  few  years  previous  to  1800. 

The  Perpendicular  Type. — Lastly,  there  is  a  type 
of  street  layout  which,  in  our  own  country,  has 
been  so  universal,  that  an  introduction  to  it  seems 
unnecessary.  This  is  called  the  perpendicular,  also 
termed  the  checkerboard  or  gridiron  type.4 

The  use  of  the  perpendicular  plan  of  street  sys- 
tem has  been  so  general  with  us  that  it  has  some- 

*  Explanatory  note. — "The  term  gridiron  plan  presupposes 
a  block  whose  length  is  much  greater  than  its  width,  as  in 
New  York  City.  The  checkerboard  plan  that  the  block  is 
square."  Cf.  City  Planning,  by  Charles  Mulford  Robinson, 
p.  14.  The  term  perpendicular  therefore  is  the  most  accepta- 
ble as  it  embraces  the  other  two. 

35 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

times  been  spoken  of  abroad  as  the  American 
System.  But  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that 
it  is  an  entirely  modern  invention.  Towns  centuries 
ago  were  laid  out  in  this  way,  as  illustrated  in  one 
ancient  town  in  Egypt  near  the  pyramids,  and  in 
ancient  Alexandria.  Towns  here  and  there  in  all 
ages  have  been  platted  with  perpendicular  streets,5 
but  its  use  over  a  whole  town's  area  as  towns  grew 
was  uncommon  in  ancient  times  for  the  reason 
that  a  somewhat  advanced  engineering  knowl- 
edge is  necessary  to  its  accomplishment  on  a  large 
scale. 

The  reason  for  the  widespread  use  of  this 
plan  lies  in  several  directions.  It  has  often  been 
found  necessary  to  lay  out  whole  or  considerable 
parts  of  towns  ahead  of  the  time  of  their  occupa- 
tion. The  perpendicular  system  was  found  to  lend 
itself  readily  to  such  a  purpose.  But  being  a  sys- 
tem that  is  easy  to  plan,  easy  to  lay  out,  and  easy 
to  record,  it  is  clearly  a  case  of  platting  along  the 
lines  of  least  resistance.  The  facility  with  which 
it  can  be  done  has  led  to  its  use  where  a  less  rigid 
system  would  have  been  far  more  logical. 

The  advantages  of  the  perpendicular  style,  be- 
sides its  ease  of  execution,  are  that  the  resulting 
rectangular  blocks  give  well  shaped  block  units, 
in  other  words,  the  maximum  area  of  usable  land. 

*  Ancient  Town  Planning,  by  F.  Haverfield,  and  Town 
Planning  in  Theory  and  Practice,  by  Raymond  Unwin. 

36 


THE  STREET  SYSTEM 

With  straight  streets,  too,  there  are  fewer  en- 
gineering problems.  On  the  other  hand  its  disad- 
vantages must  be  noted.  It  too  often  disregards 
topography,  resulting  in  grades  not  easy  either  for 
foot  or  wheel  traffic.  It  necessitates  going  about 
two  sides  of  a  triangle  to  get  from  any  one  point 
to  any  other  not  on  the  same  street.  The  monoto- 
nous appearance  of  block  after  block  of  equal  size, 
and  the  usual  lack  of  termini  for  the  eye,  are  other 
disadvantages  to  be  weighed.  And  further,  straight 
streets  frequently  act  as  funnels  for  the  sweep  of 
cold  or  dust-laden  winds. 

With  the  perpendicular  type  of  street  layout  there 
frequently  comes  the  problem  of  the  alley  system. 
Though  alleys  are  to  be  recommended  in  business 
districts  as  convenient  for  the  delivery  of  goods 
which  otherwise  must  be  piled  upon  front  side- 
walks, the  existence  of  alleys  in  residential  sections 
sometimes  becomes  a  menace  to  the  health  and 
appearance  of  the  bordering  neighborhood,  and  has 
even  been  known  to  bring  about  grave  social  prob- 
lems in  some  cities.6 

General  Observations  upon  the  Proper  Street 
System  to  Employ. — Though  one  may  have  a 

"Notably  in  Washington,  D.  C,  where  alleys  at  the  rear 
of  deep  lots  became  the  retreat  of  such  a  low  class  of 
humanity  that  proper  policing  of  them  proved  impossible. 
Legislation  has  since  been  enacted  after  a  hard  fight  which 
has  solved  the  problem  and  "cleaned  out"  Washington's 
alleys. 

37 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

preference  for  this  or  that  street  system,  to  con- 
demn all  but  one  type  for  use  would  be  to  fail  to 
take  advantage  of  the  merits  of  the  others  when 
occasion  arises.  The  truth  is  that  each  system  is 
proper  under  certain  circumstances,  dependent  upon 
ground  surface  and  the  demands  of  traffic. 

The  street  system  of  a  town  may  very  properly 
be  a  combination  of  certain  of  the  types  mentioned, 
but  one  of  them  will  always  dominate.  For  ex- 
ample, over  a  perpendicular  or  irregular  plan,  we 
may  imagine  diagonals  run  converging  in  strong 
focal  points  on  the  plan.  The  result  would  pre- 
sumably give  a  very  efficient  street  system. 

Various  Uses  of  Streets  in  the  Street  System. — 
A  study  of  the  street  system  would  be  incomplete 
were  we  to  stop  with  the  enumeration  of  types  of 
general  plans,  important  as  these  are.  A  further 
classification  must  be  made,  that  according  to  the 
purpose  which  streets  serve.  In  any  system  the  fol- 
lowing kinds  of  streets  will  be  seen:7  (i)  There  are 
the  arterial  thoroughfares  leading  from  the  outlying 
districts  toward  the  center  or  connecting  main  focal 
points,  such  as  passenger  depots  and  business  por- 
tion. (2)  There  are  the  streets  of  the  wholesale,  in- 
dustrial and  office  districts,  whose  chief  function  is 
to  carry  business  traffic  and  heavy  hauling.  (3) 

*Cf.  W.  B.  Munroe,  Principles  of  Municipal  Administra- 
tion, p.  79. 

38 


THE  STREET  SYSTEM 

There  are  the  streets  mainly  given  over  for  retail 
shopping  trade,  with  its  more  rapidly  moving  and 
lighter  traffic.  (4)  There  are  the  main  residential 
streets,  (5)  the  minor  residential  streets  or  the 
streets  of  quiet  homes,  (6)  the  parkways  and  boule- 
vards, (7)  and  finally  the  alleys  and  service  courts. 

Each  of  the  streets  mentioned  comes  into  being 
to  meet  a  separate  demand,  and  its  width  and  align- 
ment should  be  such  that  it  may  properly  do  its 
work.  In  nearly  all  communities  there  are  some 
streets  which  fall  short  of  properly  meeting  con- 
ditions because  they  were  constructed  without  due 
thought  of  purpose.  The  further  relation  of  lay- 
out to  use  will  presently  appear. 

Summary. — The  streets  of  a  town  are  of  im- 
portance in  carrying  the  currents  of  life  from  point 
to  point.  Street  arrangements  differ  in  various 
towns,  conforming  to  one  of  the  following  types: 
I.  The  Irregular  or  Meandering  Type,  2.  The  Con- 
centric Type,  3.  The  Diagonal  or  Radial  Type,  4. 
The  Perpendicular  Type.  Each  of  these  has  its 
advantages  and  disadvantages  for  universal  use. 
Under  certain  conditions,  any  one,  or  a  combination 
of  more  than  one  may  be  proper. 

It  is  seen  that  whatever  the  type  of  street  sys- 
tem may  be,  the  streets  should  be  planned  to  serve 
definite  purposes  which  may  be  classified  as  (i) 
thoroughfares  or  arterial  streets;  (2)  streets  of 

39 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

wholesale,  industrial  and  office  districts;  (3)  streets 
in  the  retail  shopping  section;  (4)  major  residen- 
tial streets;  (5)  minor  residential  streets;  (6)  park- 
ways and  boulevards;  (7)  alleys  and  service 
courts. 


CHAPTER  IV 

TRAFFIC  CIRCULATION 

NOWHERE  is  the  living  quality  of  the  town  more 
evident  than  in  its  traffic  flow.  What  a  blood  cir- 
culation is  to  the  living  organism  the  flow  of  traffic 
is  to  the  town  or  city.  It  is  the  pulse  of  the  com- 
munity. It  is  the  means  by  which  the  town  is 
nourished  and  by  means  of  which  its  life  is  carried 
on.  We  must  regard  the  question  of  the  proper  flow 
of  traffic,  therefore,  not  as  a  superfine  considera- 
tion, but  as  a  fundamental  need. 

The  Relation  of  Traffic  Flow  to  Business  and 
Living  Conditions. — When  local  transportation  is 
able  to  move  as  it  should,  with  directness  and  with- 
out loss  of  time,  traffic  is  in  a  normal  state,  and 
conditions  of  business  and  living  are  benefited;  but 
when  it  is  impeded  in  its  progress  the  result  is  a 
lowering  of  efficiency  which  is  felt  sooner  or  later  in 
living  conditions  and  in  business.  What  the  con- 
ditions are  which  impede  the  flow  of  transportation 
and  how  wrong  conditions  may  be  remedied,  we 
shall  endeavor  to  discover. 

Traffic  flow  bears  a  close  relation  to  the  cost  of 

41 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

living.  Inability  to  transport  commodities  quickly 
and  directly  results  in  an  increase  in  prices.  The 
relation  is  understood  when  we  are  told  that  it 
costs  more  to  carry  materials  across  St.  Louis  from 
wharves  to  wholesale  houses  than  to  transport 
them  the  whole  length  of  the  lower  Mississippi 
River.1 

The  Problem  of  Modern  Transportation. — 
Within  a  generation  the  character  of  traffic  in 
towns  and  cities  has  not  only  changed  greatly,  but 
it  has  enormously  increased.  With  the  advent  of 
power-driven  vehicles  some  of  the  principles  which 
served  formerly  no  longer  apply.  The  increase  in 
the  volume  of  traffic  within  our  growing  cities  has 
been  due  in  part  to  an  increased  radius  of  travel 
by  the  new  means,  and  in  part  to  the  bringing  to- 
gether of  population  more  closely  into  office  build- 
ings and  apartment  houses.  Many  an  old  channel 
is  thus  called  upon  to  fulfill  new  demands. 

When  considered  in  this  way  it  is  not  surprising 
that  a  large  number  of  traffic  problems  have  arisen. 
The  problem  of  needed  readjustments  of  one  kind 
or  another  to  fit  changed  conditions  in  the  problem 
of  traffic  in  the  average  town. 

*Cf.  also  statements  of  Municipal  Markets  Commission 
quoted  in  City  Planning,  by  C.  M.  Robinson,  p.  43,  to  the 
effect  that  it  "costs  as  much  to  deliver  a  hundred  pounds 
of  foodstuffs  in  Chicago,  after  the  supplies  have  reached  the 
city,  as  it  does  to  carry  them  the  hundred  miles  across  the 
lake.  In  Milwaukee  it  is  said  to  cost  more  to  distribute 
coal  within  the  city  than  to  bring  it  from  Pennsylvania." 

42 


WHERE   A   DOUBLE   TRACK   OVERBURDENS   A    NARROW    STREET 

On  this  street  tire  trouble  held  up  seven  cars  for  fifteen  minutes.     Owners 
of  property  stated  that  they  had  difficulty  in  getting  coal  companies 
to  deliver  coal,  owing  to  the  tie-up  to  traffic  which  the  delivery 
necessitated. 


A   STREET  OF   NEEDLESS   WIDTH   IN  A   RESIDENCE   SECTION 
Wasteful  of  valuable  space,   and  expensive  to  repair  and  to   maintain. 
Houses  crowd  close  to  the  street,  because  lots  must  be  made  corre- 
spondingly shallow. 


TRAFFIC  CIRCULATION 

The  Street  and  Traffic. — As  the  town  is  made  up 
of  varied  interests  and  parts,  so  we  find  traffic  to  be 
of  different  kinds  both  as  regards  method  of  loco- 
motion and  objective. 

There  is  wheel  and  there  is  foot  traffic.  There  is 
local  traffic  moving  from  point  to  point  with  fre- 
quent pauses,  and  through  traffic  passing  through 
the  center  to  points  beyond.  The  wheel  traffic  is 
made  up  of  private  and  public  vehicles  for  service 
and  for  pleasure.  Each  kind  of  traffic  mentioned 
occupies  a  definite  amount  of  space  for  travel,  each 
moves  at  its  own  rate  of  speed,  but  all,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  foot  traffic  on  the  sidewalk,  flows  along 
in  the  same  channel. 

An  ideally  arranged  street  system,  it  is  easy  to 
infer,  would  be  one  which  offers  to  each  class  of 
traffic  a  channel  of  its  own,  where  its  movement 
would  not  interfere  with  traffic  of  other  kinds,  nor 
itself  be  interrupted.  But  obviously  such  an  ar- 
rangement would  be  difficult  of  complete  fulfill- 
ment. By  careful  arrangement  and  proper  regu- 
lation, however,  much  assistance  may  be  given. 

Generally  speaking,  no  serious  traffic  problems 
will  arise  from  the  use  of  thoroughfares  by  differ- 
ent kinds  of  traffic  so  long  as  it  is  enabled  to  flow 
with  even  reasonable  ease.  When,  however,  the 
volume  becomes  so  great  that  a  free  flow  of  the 
current  is  no  longer  possible,  a  remedy  must  be 
applied. 

43 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

The  Causes  of  Traffic  Congestion. — First  and 
last,  traffic  congestion  means  an  overcrowding  in 
the  traffic  channel.  Where  congestion  occurs  it  is 
due  to  one  of  two  main  causes,  either  to  the  street's 
being  obliged  to  meet  demands  for  which  it  was 
not  originally  intended,  or  to  actual  obstructions 
in  the  traffic  channel.  In  either  case  the  reason  is 
that  of  improper  planning. 

Old  Channels  for  New  Requirements. — Business 
like  steam,  demands  room  for  expansion.  Con- 
centration to  a  reasonable  extent  is  desirable  in  the 
business  district,  but  a  constant  outward  pressure 
has  to  be  provided  for.  It  frequently  happens  that 
a  street  just  off  of  a  main  thoroughfare  develops 
into  a  thriving  business  street,  when  its  width  is 
not  suited  to  carry  the  traffic  which  such  a  develop- 
ment brings  to  it.  And  so  it  comes  about  that, 
though  main  thoroughfares  are  usually  made  of 
adequate  width,  traffic  conditions  in  minor  streets 
which  have  been  later  brought  into  use  as  business 
streets,  are  often  serious. 

Physical  Obstructions  in  the  Channel. — One  of 
the  serious  deterrants  to  traffic  in  a  town  or  city 
is  that  class  of  physical  obstructions  which  con- 
sist of  angles  in  the  street  line,  a  narrowing  up 
of  the  street,  sudden  jogs  and  offset  street  intersec- 
tions.2 

Following  the  common  method  of  adding  to  the 

8  See  Diagram  IV,  figs.  2,  5,  6,  7,  8. 

44 


TRAFFIC  CIRCULATION 

town  plan  piecemeal,  property  lines  occasionally 
offer  problems  as  to  the  direct  continuity  of  streets. 
It  is  seldom  that  such  obstructions  could  not  have 
been  overcome,  if  care  had  been  taken  for  adjust- 
ment at  the  proper  time,3  but  the  line  of  least  re- 
sistance has  too  often  offered  to  the  street  platter 
a  tempting  way  out  of  the  problem,  and  obstruc- 
tions were  allowed  to  stand.  Could  the  serious 
results  which  are  to-day  present  have  been  fore- 
seen on  this  street  or  that,  most  of  the  mistakes 
in  the  laying  out  of  traffic  routes  would  have  been 
avoided. 

Street  Requirements  for  Proper  Traffic  Flow. — 
For  the  facility  of  traffic  flow  along  the  city  street 
three  main  requirements  appear  evident,  (i)  The 
requirement  of  a  proper  degree  of  directness;  (2) 
the  requirement  of  proper  grade,  and  (3)  the  re- 
quirement of  proper  width.  Let  us  consider  the 
application  of  each  of  these  to  streets,  making 
use  of  the  term  "street"  to  mean  not  the  roadway 
alone,  but  all  the  land  lying  between  property  lines 
on  opposite  sides,  including  planting  strip  and  side- 
walk. 

The  Requirement  of  Directness. — To  go  from 
point  to  point  in  the  town  the  ideal  route  from  the 
standpoint  of  time  and  ease  would  obviously  be 
the  straight  line.  The  turning  of  corners  means  not 
only  possible  contact  with  other  vehicles  but  a  loss 

*Cf.  above  p.  7,  par.  I. 

45 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

of  time  in  making  the  journey.  The  effect  of  the 
obstructions  offered  to  traffic  by  street  angles,  jogs, 
and  offset  street  intersections  is  easily  appreciated. 
Even  supposing  that  vehicles  using  the  roadway 
keep  to  their  proper  place,  possible  collision  points 
are  many.4 

Though  directness  is  of  utmost  importance  in 
the  business  section  and  on  arterial  thorough- 
fares, where  the  volume  of  travel  is  great  or  where 
time  between  points  is  a  vital  consideration,  it  is 
of  less  importance  in  the  minor  streets  of  residence 
districts.  Here  it  is  often  purposely  to  be  avoided 
by  making  minor  streets  short  and  curving  them 
where  a  logical  reason  for  a  curve  is  found.  The 
reason  being  that  through  travel  is  not  invited 
on  such  streets.  The  quiet  homelike  quality  of  the 
section  being  here  a  more  important  consideration. 

The  Requirement  of  Proper  Grade. — Steep 
grades  do  not  at  the  present  day  form  such  an 
obstacle  to  traffic  as  formerly  when  the  horse  was 
the  standard  motive  power.  In  the  day  of  the 
horse-drawn  vehicle  8%  (that  is  the  rise  of  eight 
feet  in  going  a  horizontal  distance  of  one  hundred 
feet)  was  about  the  maximum  slope  that  might 
be  allowed  for  easy  hauling.  To-day  the  auto 
readily  climbs  a  road  of  from  12  to  14%.  How- 
ever, there  is  a  certain  limit  close  about  this  figure 

*See  Diagram  IV  illustrating  various  Traffic  Channels  and 
Traffic  Flow,  p.  47. 

46 


TRAFFIC  CIRCULATION 
DIAGRAM  IV. 


Jtl_  J 


SIMPU  TRIBUTARY  JNTtRSKTIOH         CXfSCT  STRUT  INTtRSlCTlOH 


OBDINARY   INTtRStCTlON 


SPACE  AS  NO.  10  WITH  OYRA- 
REOUIATION -TRAFFIC  MOVING 
ABOUT  A  DtPINITE  CENTER  IN  A  COUNT- 
ER CLOCKWISE.  DIRECTION 


ILLUSTRATION   OF   SEVERAL  TYPES  OF  TRAFFIC  CHANNELS 
SHOWING  TRAFFIC  FLOW. 


47 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

just  named,  beyond  which  streets  should  not  rise 
in  steepness.  San  Francisco,  whose  streets  in  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  city  were  laid  out  with  little  re- 
gard to  topography,  has  in  some  places  slopes  of 
26%  for  some  of  its  residence  streets.  The  fact 
that  grass  is  seen  growing  in  the  pavement  of  such 
streets,  though  they  lie  in  thickly  populated  regions, 
and  that  vehicles  stop  on  the  street  above  to  make 
deliveries,  is  evidence  of  the  restriction  which  grade 
may  put  upon  traffic  movement. 

The  Requirement  of  Proper  Width. — The  width 
given  to  streets  bears  a  definite  relation  to  their 
importance  on  the  town  plan.  Main  business  streets 
and  arterial  thoroughfares  should  have  additional 
width  to  provide  for  the  larger  amount  of  traffic 
which  is  to  use  them. 

Under  the  system  which  has  existed  in  most  of 
the  towns  and  cities  of  our  country,  the  width  of 
streets  has  been  largely  standardised,  that  is,  the 
same  width  has  been  laid  down  for  all  streets  in 
town  regardless  of  special  use.  The  main  business 
street  is  made  no  wider  than  the  street  of  homes; 
on  the  other  hand,  the  street  in  the  quiet  residence 
section  is  given  a  width  adequate  to  the  busiest 
thoroughfare. 

While  there  are  some  streets  in  nearly  all  com- 
munities with  roadways  which  are  of  insufficient 
width,  the  greater  number  are  given  too  great 

48 


TRAFFIC  CIRCULATION 

width.5  Over- wide  streets  mean  an  economic  loss 6 
to  the  city  of  otherwise  usable  space.  Too  wide 
pavements  entail  unnecessary  cost  of  paving  and 
upkeep,  not  to  mention  the  discomfort  resulting 
from  heat  reflection,  and  time  taken  in  crossing. 

Remembering  that  streets  are  to  be  considered  as 
organs  serving  a  definite  purpose  in  the  town's  life, 
we  shall  at  once  recognize  that  street  widths  may 
and  should  vary  according  to  the  purpose  required 
of  them.  Where  it  is  known  that  a  wide  street 
will  never  be  needed  in  a  particular  section,  a  limited 
width  should  be  given  to  both  street  and  pavement.7 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  necessary  to  make  streets 
in  other  sections  wide  at  the  start  or  to  plan  them 
in  such  a  way  that  they  can  be  widened  when  the 
time  comes. 

The  degree  of  ability  to  meet  with  reasonable 
ease  possible  later  requirements  of  greater  width 
is  called  the  street's  convertibility.  *R  way  of 
rendering  a  street  readily  convertible  into  a  street 
with  wider  roadway  would  be  to  provide  generous 
parking  strips  between  curb  and  sidewalk.  On  such 
a  street  the  pavement  could  be  widened  at  any  time 
with  slight  readjustment. 

Planning  Street  Widths. — To  be  able  to  tell  just 

"  Cf .  City  Planning,  by  N.  P.  Lewis,  pp.  226-7. 

"Above  note  2,  p.  31. 

'It  is  possible  to  insure  a  certain  amount  of  stability  to 
property  values  in  residence  sections  by  limiting  the  width 
of  streets. 

49 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

how  wide  to  make  streets  is  not  a  complicated 
matter,  though  it  at  first  appears  so;  one  needs  to 
have  in  mind  standard  dimensions  for  various  lines 
of  traffic,  and  then  make  provision  for  the  proper 
number  of  lines  of  such  traffic  on  the  street. 

We  may  estimate  the  space  required  by  each  line 
of  pedestrians  on  the  sidewalk  as  about  two  feet. 
On  a  residential  street  then  a  four-foot  walk  might 
suffice,  though  five  would  be  most  comfortable  for 
ordinary  use,  and  six  better  for  a  popular  street. 
In  the  business  district  sidewalks  may  vary  from 
eight  to  twenty  feet,  the  parking,  between  side- 
walk and  curb,  here  being  eliminated.  Ordinary 
lines  of  vehicle  traffic  occupy  about  eight  feet,  al- 
lowing for  passing.  A  quiet  residence  street  might 
thus  be  made  with  a  twenty-four-foot  roadway. 
For  two  lines  of  traffic  in  each  direction  we  should 
allow  thirty-two,  although  thirty  would  probably 
do.  A  single  street-car  line  requires  about  nine  feet 
for  proper  clearance  on  each  side;  a  double  track 
would  claim  about  nineteen  feet  of  the  street's 
width. 

Diagram  V  will  be  helpful  in  illustrating 
the  subject  of  practical  street  widths  and 
methods  of  subdividing  the  street  cross  section  for 
traffic  under  varying  conditions.8 

'  Cf.  Also  pp.  226-27,  The  Planning  of  the  Modern  City, 
by  N.  P.  Lewis. 

50 


TRAFFIC  CIRCULATION 
DIAGRAM  V. 


A  BOULEVARD  OR.  A  MAJOR  RESIDENCE  THOROUGH FARt  WITH  CENTER  PARKING 


CROSS  SECTIONS  OF  A  FEW  IMPORTANT  TYPES  OF  STREETS. 
51 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

Methods  of  Meeting  Traffic  Problems  in  the 
City. — Having  considered  in  a  general  way  what  the 
traffic  problems  are  which  the  city  has  to  consider, 
it  remains  to  be  considered  how  these  problems  are 
met.  The  methods  of  meeting  traffic  problems  are 
mainly  two,  viz. :  ( i )  By  making  changes  in  the 
physical  condition  of  the  channel,  and  (2)  by  legal 
regulation  as  to  traffic  flow. 

Improvement  Through  Physical  Change. — The 
fact  that  protruding  buildings,  street  jogs,  offset 
corners,  and  narrow  roadways  and  sidewalks  im- 
pede quick  transit,  points  to  the  fact  that  by  doing 
away  with  the  jog,  and  offset  street  intersections, 
and  by  widening  the  roadway  and  the  sidewalk  an 
effective  beginning  will  be  made  in  improving  con- 
ditions. Radical  changes  such  as  the  straightening 
of  streets  and  the  setting  back  of  building  lines  are 
extremely  expensive  in  built-up  portions,  and  in- 
volve much  legal  dispute  and  tedious  procedure. 
Each  case  calling  for  reconstruction  is  to  be  de- 
cided upon  its  own  merits,  the  cost  as  in  all  im- 
provement projects  being  a  relative  matter  to  be 
weighed  against  the  benefit  to  be  gained. 

On  wide  streets  small  raised  areas  called  "Islands 
of  Safety"  are  sometimes  placed  in  the  center  of 
the  traffic  channel.  Primarily  of  use  as  a  mid- 
stream refuge  from  fast  traffic,  they  serve  also  to 
keep  vehicles  in  their  place  to  right  and  left. 

Improvement  Through  Traffic  Regulation. — 
The  second  way  of  aiding  traffic  flow  in  cities  is 

52 


TRAFFIC  CIRCULATION 

that  of  instituting  legal  regulations  by  the  aid  of 
which  traffic  is  enabled  to  flow  in  considerable 
amount  along  channels  which  otherwise  would  be 
so  choked  as  to  be  all  but  useless. 

The  simplest  and  most  universal  of  all  traffic 
rules  is  that  of  keeping  to  the  right  in  passing.  At 
street  intersections  a  very  general  regulation  is  that 
traffic  in  turning  into  left-hand  channels  should 
turn  sharply  about  a  real  or  imaginary  point  at 
the  center — avoiding  cutting  across  the  corner.9  In 
crowded  parts  of  a  large  city  it  often  becomes  nec- 
essary to  allow  travel  only  at  intervals  across  in- 
tersecting streets,  a  traffic  policeman  with  whistle 
or  semiphore  directing  the  alternating  flow.  What 
may  seem  at  first  a  slowing  up  of  traffic  makes  for 
speed  in  the  end.  Many  street  crossings  in  our 
large  cities  would  be  next  to  impassable  without 
such  regulation.  About  twenty  to  forty  seconds  is 
said  to  be  the  usual  time  taken  for  the  flow  in  one 
cross  direction  before  that  along  the  cross  channel 
is  begun. 

At  focal  points  in  the  city  where  monumental 
or  wide  open  spaces  occur,  a  wise  rule  is  that 
traffic  entering  the  open  space  shall  go  round  to 
the  right  in  a  counter-clockwise  direction  about  the 
center  until  it  finds  its  exit.10  Thus  the  likelihood 
of  confusion  is  obviated. 

•See  Diagram  IV,  p.  47,  figs.  I,  2,  3,  4,  and  5. 
"  See  Diagram  IV,  p.  47,  figs.  9,  10,  and  II. 

53 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

The  problem  of  what  to  do  with  the  standing 
auto  is  becoming  of  increasing  importance.  In 
crowded  sections  of  some  cities  vehicles  are  not 
allowed  to  stand  at  the  curb  longer  than  to  take 
in  and  deliver  passengers ;  in  others,  they  may  stand, 
but  not  unattended.  When  streets  are  very  wide 
autos  are  sometimes  parked  in  the  middle  of  the 
street.  The  blocking  of  traffic  lines  by  standing 
autos  in  one  way  or  another  is  evident  in  most 
cities.  A  common  regulation  is  that  they  shall  park 
only  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  to  the  curb 
line;  another,  that  they  may  not  park  within  a 
distance  of  not  less  than  twenty  or  thirty  feet  from 
the  corner. 

Crosstown  and  radial  thoroughfares  leading 
through  already  busy  sections  often  result  in  traffic 
congestion  at  the  point  of  intersection.  Regula- 
tions passed  in  St.  Louis,  Oakland  and  in  some 
other  cities  require  through  traffic  during  certain 
hours  of  the  day  to  pass  about  several  blocks  to 
avoid  a  congested  business  center.  Many  cities, 
notably  Pittsburgh,  have  made  certain  streets  one- 
way streets  at  all  times.  The  fault  of  the  original 
planning,  which  makes  such  legislation  necessary, 
is  evident  to  all. 

Traffic  Regulation  for  Comfort  and  Safety. — 
There  are  many  traffic  regulations  which  each  town 
or  city  may  enact  for  the  protecting  of  its  citizens. 
Such  regulations  are  those  which  have  to  do  with 

54 


TRAFFIC  CIRCULATION 

restricting  speed,  dimming  extraordinarily  brilliant 
lights,  prohibiting  autos  from  passing  by  waiting 
street  cars  as  they  stop  to  receive  or  discharge  pas- 
sengers, and  the  like. 

Wise  regulations,  too,  are  those  that  prohibit 
bicycles  from  the  use  of  sidewalks  at  all  times,  and 
those  which  prohibit  ordinary  hauling  on  strictly 
residential  streets  except  for  the  direct  delivery  of 
household  and  building  supplies. 

Summary. — A  proper  traffic  flow  is  vital  to  a 
town's  business  efficiency.  Modern  transportation 
renders  the  problem  of  street  transportation  greater 
to-day  that  ever  before.  The  causes  of  traffic  con- 
gestion are  (i)  the  placing  of  unforeseen  demands 
upon  the  traffic  channel  and  (2)  the  existence  of 
actual  physical  obstructions  in  it.  In  either  case 
lack  of  proper  planning  is  the  reason  therefor. 

Three  main  traffic  requirements  are  to  be  noted 
in  regard  to  streets:  (i)  The  requirement  of 
proper  directness;  (2)  the  requirement  of  proper 
grade,  and  (3)  the  requirement  of  proper  width. 
There  are  two  methods  of  meeting  traffic  problems 
which  arise:  ( i)  By  making  changes  in  the  physical 
condition  of  the  channel  and  (2)  by  legal  regula- 
tions of  traffic  flow.  One  or  both  of  these  may  be 
employed  according  to  circumstances. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  RAILROAD  AND  THE  TOWN 

IT  is  characteristic  of  our  everyday  life  that  once 
a  thing  is  found  to  be  convenient  it  becomes  in- 
dispensable to  the  next  generation.  The  steam 
railroad  is  one  of  many  modern  conveniences  which 
have  thus  taken  a  prominent  place  in  modern  life. 
It  is  not  too  much  to  say  thai  it  is  one  of  the  most 
active  agencies  in  the  progress  of  civilization.  Upon 
the  growth  of  adequate  facilities  for  railroad 
transportation  depends  in  a  very  large  degree  the 
growth  of  towns  and  cities. 

If  it  is  true  that  towns  are  dependent  upon  rail- 
roads, it  is  equally  true  that  railroads  cannot 
prosper  without  towns  to  support  them.  In  other 
words,  a  very  real  and  definite  interdependence 
exists  between  the  two.  It  is  well  to  recognize  this 
thought  at  the  start,  for  only  by  so  doing  may  a 
fair  and  just  consideration  of  the  subject  be  under- 
taken. 

The  Justifying  Value  of  the  Railroad. — Let  us 
for  the  moment  imagine  ourselves  living  in  an  ab- 
solutely railroadless  town.  Certain  indisputable 

56 


THE  RAILROAD  AND  THE  TOWN 

advantages  there  would  be  in  the  existence  de- 
scribed. We  should  be  blessed  with  less  noise; 
whistling  trains,  ringing  bells,  and  the  rattle  of  rails 
would  be  eliminated.  There  would  be  far  less 
smoke  and  dirt  to  distress  us.  We  could  go  about 
town  in  far  greater  safety,  hazardous  railroad 
crossings  being  no  longer  existent.  In  point  of 
appearance,  too,  our  towns  would  show  improve- 
ment; no  switch  yards,  dreary  tracks,  and  ugly 
roundhouses,  would  lower  the  standard  of  the 
town's  appearance. 

But  in  the  wake  of  these  advantages  there  would 
be  disadvantages  which  we  should  have  to  recog- 
nize. Easy  and  quick  communication  with  the  out- 
side world  would  be  difficult.  Mail  and  articles 
sent  by  post  which  take  but  one  or  two  days  to 
reach  us  from  distant  points  by  railroad  would 
require  many  days  to  arrive  at  their  destination. 
And  we  can  imagine  for  ourselves  more  trying 
conditions. 

Our  inevitable  conclusion  under  such  circum- 
stances would  be  that  in  spite  of  certain  unpleasant 
things  that  exist  with  the  railroad,  its  existence  is 
more  than  justified  because  of  the  service  it  renders. 
The  proper  attitude,  therefore,  for  the  citizen  to 
assume  with  regard  to  it,  is  acceptance  of  its 
presence  coupled  with  a  resolve  to  work  for  im- 
provement in  conditions  which  seem  not  to  be  ideal. 

Past  and  Present  Attitude. — A  common  attitude 

57 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

of  mind  which  has  long  been  held  regarding  the 
railroad  in  the  town  is  that  of  suspicion  of  every- 
thing bearing  the  name  of  Railroad  Company. 
This  attitude  is  the  outgrowth  of  a  status,  which 
it  must  be  admitted  existed  with  some  real  provo- 
cation in  former  time.  Concessions  of  land  along 
their  route  were  granted  railroads  *  in  their  early 
history  by  the  government  to  induce  them  to  enter 
new  regions,  concessions  so  sweeping  as  easily  to 
lead  railroad  companies  to  assume  an  attitude  of 
arrogance  toward  the  public  in  the  territory  through 
which  they  passed.  In  former  days  railroads  were 
little  regulated  by  law;  of  late  years,  however, 
something  of  the  other  extreme  exists.  Regula- 
tions and  laws  differing  in  various  states  have 
hampered  full  efficiency  in  railroad  development 
from  the  railroad's  point  of  view.  There  are  in- 
stances which  might  be  cited  to  show  that  in  late 
years  the  railroad  has  done  its  part  to  meet  the 
public  half  way.2  To-day  the  railroad  is  to  be  re- 
garded in  a  quasi  public  role3  with  certain  duties 

1  Railroads  were  in  some  cases  granted  title  to  alternate 
sections  of  land  fifty  miles  each  side  of  the  right  of  way. 

2  It  is  significant  of  the  new  attitude  of  the  railroads  that 
there   has   lately   been   established   what  has   been   called   a 
Railway   Publicity   Bureau   in   Illinois,   made  up   of   thirty- 
seven  prominent  railroad  companies.     The  aim  of  the  or- 
ganization is  claimed  to  be  to  discover  how  a  greater  degree 
of  cooperation  between  communities  and  the  railroads  can 
be  brought  about. 

8  The  Relations  of  Railways  to  City  Development.    Papers 
Am.  Inst.  of  Architects.     Glen  Brown,  Editor. 

58 


THE  RAILROAD  AND  THE  TOWN 

owing  to  the  public,  an  idea  largely  accepted  by  the 
railroads  themselves. 

It  is  to  the  interest  of  both  railroad  and  town 
that  their  relations  be  friendly.  Both  have  rights 
which  the  other  should  respect.  The  benefits  of  a 
friendly  relationship  will  prove  to  be  far  greater 
than  an  antagonistic  bearing  on  either  side. 

The  Railroad  and  the  Town  Plan. — The  railroad 
as  seen  on  the  town  map  often  shows  evidence 
of  wrong  location,  cutting  through  the  town's  very 
center  or  usurping  land  especially  valuable  for 
town  development.  This  is  due,  quite  often,  not 
to  the  railroad's  intention  to  cut  the  town  plan  in 
two,  but  rather  to  subsequent  town  development  on 
each  side  of  the  railroad's  right  of  way.  Again, 
a  railroad  company  has  sometimes  been  compelled 
to  accept  a  right  of  way  into  town  against  its 
choice,  the  land  later  having  proved  to  be  of  great 
economic  value  as  in  the  case  of  the  Illinois  Central 
R.R.  in  Chicago,  in  its  route  along  the  lake  shore. 

A  noteworthy  difference  in  railroad  location  with 
respect  to  the  town  plan  is  noticeable  in  American 
and  European  cities.  In  most  American  towns  the 
railroad  runs  directly  through  the  town,  while  abroad 
it  is  more  often  located  toward  the  edge;  the 
reason  for  this  being  that  in  the  average  case  in  our 
country  the  railroad  existed  before  the  town  was 
established,  or  at  least  before  it  attained  middle  age, 
while  abroad,  as  a  rule,  the  town  or  city  had  ex- 

59 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

isted  long  before  the  railroad  came  into  being.  The 
difference  in  point  of  such  unsightly  features  as 
shipping  yards  and  steel-tracked  gulches,  is  obvious. 

It  is  common  to  find  the  railroad  occupying  land 
along  the  waterfront  of  the  town.  At  least  four 
reasons  account  for  this:  (i)  The  grades  are  uni- 
form at  this  point;  (2)  a  line  along  the  water  is 
thought  by  early  townsmen  to  be  out  of  the  way; 
(3)  railroads  serve  industries  which  typically  oc- 
cupy land  near  water,  and  (4)  the  easy  filling  in 
of  waste  land  lying  near  rivers  is  a  further  induce- 
ment to  railroads  to  take  over  such  lands  and  create 
yards  by  filling. 

The  Railroad  as  the  Entrance  into  Town. — The 
railroad  forms  the  main  point  of  entrance  into  our 
cities  from  the  outside  world.  In  a  way  the  rail- 
road is  the  portal  to  the  town — the  route  from 
which  the  traveler  gains  his  first  impression  of  the 
community. 

Old  world  cities  appreciate  this  fact  more  than 
we,  and  more  attention  is  paid  by  them  to  making 
the  first  impression  a  favorable  one.  Rights  of  way 
are  often  flower-bordered.  Remembering  that 
medieval  towns  were  approached  by  a  highway  en- 
trance through  massive  gates  in  the  city  walls, 
some  foreign  towns  of  modern  day  have  given  to 
the  railroad  entrance  a  like  significance.  Special 
opportunity  comes  where  a  bridge  crosses  a  river, 
entering  the  town  from  the  opposite  bank.  The 

60 


THE  RAILROAD  AND   THE   TOWN 

railroad  bridge  at  Mainz,  for  example,  having  the 
form  of  a  portcullis,  is  a  good  example  of  this 
treatment. 

Clearly  the  town  which  can  create  an  impression 
of  attractive  appearance  in  the  traveler's  mind  has 
passed  out  the  best  kind  of  advertising  card.  No 
town  or  city  would  purposely  display  a  sign  "We  are 
a  shiftless  town/'  and  yet  many  a  town  in  our  coun- 
try does  this  in  spirit  by  ignoring  appearances  at 
its  railway  entrance,  displaying  wretched  hovels, 
slovenly  backyards,  and  unsightly  signboards  along 
the  right  of  way  or  in  full  view  of  waiting  trains. 

The  Railroad  Station — Location  and  Appear- 
ance.— The  location  and  the  appearance  of  the  rail- 
way station  are  important  factors  in  making  or 
destroying  the  desirable  impression  just  mentioned. 
On  leaving  an  ideally  located  station  the  traveler 
finds  himself  upon  a  threshold,  where  he  obtains  a 
panoramic  view  of  the  most  interesting  section  of 
the  city.  In  Genoa,  Italy,  several  years  ago  the 
citizens  decided  upon  the  improvement  of  the  land 
immediately  adjoining  the  railroad  station.  Here 
they  "placed  appropriately  the  statue  of  Columbus 
and  in  surrounding  this  with  turf  and  flowers  they 
did  so  in  order  as  the  Genovese  authorities  ex- 
pressly declared,  'that  the  first  impression  of 
strangers  coming  to  our  city  might  be  favorable.' "  * 

*Ref.   quoted,   Modern   Civic   Art,  by   C.   M.    Robinson, 
p.  68. 

6l 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

Being  the  point  of  entrance  and  exit,  the  railroad 
station  should  be  located  so  as  to  be  easily  accessible 
from  various  parts  of  town.  Streets  may  well  focus 
at  this  point.  The  station's  location  should  be 
thought  of  as  an  important  part  of  every  town  plan- 
ning scheme.  It  may  be  located  in  relation  to  other 
public  buildings,  and  may  even  form  a  part  of  the 
civic  center  itself,  especially  where  one  leading  rail- 
road line  serves  the  town. 

Until  lately  the  term  "cattle  shed"  was  applied 
to  the  main  passenger  station  in  the  city  having  the 
second  greatest  mileage  of  tracks  of  any  city  of 
the  union.  The  appearance  of  the  structure  named 
was  neither  comfortable,  nor  in  any  way  sug- 
gestive of  it.  As  to  the  effort  at  architectural  de- 
sign of  railroad  stations,  we  find  good  examples  in 
a  number  of  our  large  cities,  but  it  must  be  said 
that  in  the  average  town,  too  little  attention  has 
been  given  to  making  them  more  than  what  is  im- 
plied in  the  reference  above. 

Considering  the  comparatively  small  difference 
in  cost  of  well  designed  over  poorly  designed  struc- 
tures, the  number  of  poor  examples  is  a  surprise. 
A  station  which  will  perfectly  accommodate  people 
in  large  numbers,  and  can  take  its  place  alongside 
of  the  best  modern  architecture  of  the  town  in 
point  of  appearance  is  the  thing  desired. 

Union  Stations. — When  several  railroads  of  a 
city  unite  in  the  building  of  a  union  station,  the 

62 


AN  INADEQUATE  AND  UGLY  STATION 

This  building  survives  in  a  city  oi  well  over  one  hundred  thousand  inhabitants. 
A  poor  first  impression  for  the  traveler. 


A   RAILROAD   STATION   OF    PLEASING   APPEARANCE 

One  of  many  artistic  structures  along  the  route  of  the  Santa  Fe  R.  R., 
Clovis,  N.  M. 


THE  RAILROAD  AND   THE   TOWN 

location  and  form  of  this  building  become  of  spe- 
cial moment  to  the  community,  offering  an  oppor- 
tunity to  make  something  proportionately  imposing. 
The  advantage  and  disadvantage  of  a  union  station 
has  been  much  discussed  by  town  planners.  The 
street  system  at  the  point  of  the  station's  location 
is  put  to  a  severe  test  in  that  the  station's  establish- 
ment concentrates  a  good  deal  of  traffic  at  this 
point — traffic  which  before  was  distributed  to 
several  points.  The  Union  Station,  however,  offers 
undeniable  advantages  to  the  community  in  that, 
(i)  it  is  economical  in  space  needed  for  rights  of 
way;  (2)  it  is  economical  in  space  devoted  to  the 
station  itself,  (3)  by  united  effort  a  much  more 
creditable  station  building  is  assured  and  (4)  it  is 
convenient  for  the  traveler. 

Railroad  Station  Grounds. — Parallel  with  the 
idea  of  improvement  in  the  actual  building  where 
the  traveler  enters  and  finds  temporary  shelter,  there 
comes  the  thought  of  improvement  which  may  be 
made  in  the  surroundings  of  the  station  building. 
Effort,  sporadic  and  wasteful,  has  often  been 
made  to  "beautify"  station  grounds,  with  a  result 
often  far  from  pleasing.  Neatness  is  desirable,  but 
something  more  than  neatness  is  needed.  Gera- 
niums and  whitewashed  stones,  cast-iron  Indians, 
and  concrete  dogs  have  possibly  a  faint  element  of 
interest  or  amusement  to  the  passerby,  but  how 
much  more  desirable  the  effect  of  quiet  orderliness 

63 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

produced  by  stretches  of  lawn,  green  trees  and  well 
arranged  shrubbery  borders.  The  freshness  of  such 
a  scene  would  offer  to  the  cinder-dimmed  eye  of  the 
tired  traveler  an  impression  not  soon  forgotten. 
Sometimes  the  railroad  station  is  fortunate  enough 
to  face  a  small  town  park,  which  then  offers  to 
travelers  a  welcome  chance  to  spend  time  in  the 
open  between  trains.5 

Encouraging  evidence  of  the  consistent  improve- 
ment in  station  grounds  carried  out  by  railroads 
with  the  cooperation  of  the  towns  along  the  route 
may  be  cited.  The  story  of  improvement  accom- 
plished by  the  Boston  and  Albany  Railroads  in  its 
station  grounds  is  well  told  in  the  following  para- 
graph.* 

"It  was  a  little  over  twenty  years  ago  that  the 
baggage  master  of  the  Newtonville  station,  Mr.  E. 
A.  Richardson,  having  in  his  make-up  both  the 
gardening  instinct  and  love  of  the  beautiful,  thought 
it  not  inconsistent  with  his  duties  as  custodian  of  the 
station  to  beautify  the  adjacent  grounds,  which  in 
common  with  most  railroad  property  at  that  time 
were  entirely  barren  and  uninviting  from  every 
point  of  view.  The  citizens  of  Newtonville  en- 
couraged this  effort  on  the  part  of  Mr.  Richardson 

"Ref.  F.  L.  McVey,  The  Making  of  a  Town,  chap.  7, 
The  Entrance  to  the  Town. 

*A  Study  in  Railroad  Gardening,  by  Frank  S.  Arnold 
Article  in  Suburban  Life,  printed  in  pamphlet  form  by 
Gen.  Passenger  Dept,  B.  &  A.  R.R.,  Boston,  Mass. 

64 


THE  RAILROAD  AND  THE  TOWN 

by  supplying  him  with  the  necessary  material  for 
the  furtherance  of  his  work,  and  it  was  not  long 
before  the  station  grounds  were  so  conspicuously 
improved  as  to  be  a  matter  of  universal  comment. 

"As  might  be  expected,  this  form  of  improve- 
ment was  brought  to  the  attention  of  Professor 
Sargent  of  the  Arnold  Arboretum,  one  of  the 
Directors  of  the  Albany  Board,  with  the  result  that 
a  department  having  in  charge  the  beautifying  of 
suburban  grounds  was  instituted  and  Mr.  Richard- 
son placed  at  the  head  of  it.  From  this  small  be- 
ginning has  resulted  a  system  of  gardening  now 
embracing  over  sixty  stations  along  the  line  of  the 
Boston  and  Albany." 

A  good  deal  that  is  worth  while  in  improving 
station  grounds  has  been  done  by  the  railroad  com- 
pany's offering  prizes  for  the  best  kept  stations 
along  its  route.  Frequently  towns  and  railroads  can 
do  much  by  cooperation  of  effort  at  beautification. 

Other  Specific  Problems. — Frequently  the  rail- 
road as  it  cuts  or  appears  to  cut  through  the  town 
plan,  creates  serious  problems  for  traffic.  Here  and 
there  streets  cross  the  tracks  on  a  level  creating 
grade  crossings — a  menace  in  many  a  community/ 

TIt  is  stated  that  one  thousand  lives  are  sacrificed  annually 
in  the  United  States  at  grade  crossings,  the  use  of  the 
automobile  increasing  the  proportions  of  the  problem.  Cf. 
The  Removal  of  Grade  Crossing,  by  H.  Bartholomew, 
Eng.  City  Plan  Commission,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Wildwood  Maga- 
zine, Dec.,  1916. 

65 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

Elsewhere  streets  are  brought  to  an  abrupt  end  by 
the  railroad.  Since  streets  are  sometimes  laid  out 
crossing  the  railroad  long  after  the  railroad  has 
been  built,  the  railroad  is  not  always  to  blame  for 
the  grade  crossings  nor  for  the  dead-end  street. 

When  it  comes  to  making  readjustments  for  the 
benefit  of  the  city  it  is  sometimes  necessary  for  the 
community  to  assume  a  part  of  the  expense  of  such 
improvement,  the  division  of  expense  to  be  borne 
by  town  and  railroad  respectively,  being  regulated 
by  the  State  Board  of  Public  Service  according  to 
the  conditions  of  each  problem.  A  large  number  of 
states  prohibit  by  law  the  establishment  by  railroads 
of  grade  crossings  along  new  routes. 

The  expense  of  eliminating  all  grade  crossings 
at  once  in  a  community  is  usually  prohibitive. 
Most  towns  and  cities  honestly  aim  at  their  abolish- 
ment in  time.  When  improvement  cannot  at  once 
be  accomplished  it  is  the  town's  duty  to  cease  agita- 
tion merely  for  agitation's  sake,  and  to  see  to  it 
that  crossings  are  made  as  safe  as  possible  by  the 
installing  of  gates  and  automatic  signals  until  the 
time  when  entire  correction  can  be  brought  about. 

The  change  from  having  grade  crossings  is  ac- 
complished in  one  of  several  ways ;  by  elevating  the 
tracks,  or  by  lowering  them  so  that  they  lie  in  open 
cuts,  or  by  partially  elevating  the  tracks  and  low- 
ering the  roadway  making  a  tunnel  under  the  track 
for  the  street  at  the  point  where  its  line  crosses  the 

66 


THE  RAILROAD  AND  THE  TOWN 

railroad.  The  tunnel  of  gentle  grade  under  the 
slightly  raised  track  would  seem  to  be  the  best  solu- 
tion in  the  average  case.  Care  must  be  taken  that 
such  tunnels  are  well  drained,  and  well  lighted,  and 
that  they  be  kept  clean. 

The  Importance  of  Cooperation. — In  all  attempts 
at  improvement  cooperation  between  the  citizen 
body  and  the  railroad  will  accomplish  most  With- 
out it  little  can  be  expected  from  either  side.  Re- 
quests to  the  railroad  company  for  a  new  station 
or  for  improvement  along  the  right  of  way  should  be 
accompanied  by  an  expression  of  willingness  on  the 
part  of  the  citizens  to  do  their  share  if  need  be. 
Let  it  be  remembered,  for  example,  that  unsightly 
views  just  over  the  boundary  will  contradict  any 
effort  the  railroad  may  be  endeavoring  to  make  in 
the  appearance  of  its  property. 

Summary. — The  steam  railroad  has  taken  a 
prominent  place  in  the  life  of  modern  communi- 
ties. Though  its  presence  creates  certain  problems, 
its  existence  is  justified.  There  exists  between  the 
railroad  and  the  town  an  interdependence  which 
should  be  recognized. 

The  railroad  forms  an  important  entrance  to  the 
town.  The  impression  of  the  town's  appearance 
gained  by  the  passer-through,  or  the  visitor  arriv- 
ing by  train,  serves  as  an  advertisement  for  good 
or  ill.  It  is  of  importance,  therefore,  to  the  town 
that  this  impression  be  a  favorable  one.  Attention 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

given  to  improving  the  appearance  of  property 
along  the  right  of  way,  the  railroad  station,  and  the 
grounds  about  it,  will  go  far  toward  creating  the 
desired  favorable  impression. 

The  question  of  the  railroad  station's  location 
with  reference  to  the  town  plan,  and  the  solution 
of  such  problems  as  dead-end  streets  and  grade 
crossings  are  matters  of  importance  in  their  turn. 
Cooperation  is  to  be  remembered  as  the  most 
effective  means  of  bringing  about  improvement  in 
the  conditions  that  exist  between  the  town  and  the 
railroad. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  WATER  FRONT 

IN  most  towns  and  cities  there  will  be  found  the 
presence  of  some  water  body.  Sometimes  it  is  the 
shore  of  lake,  ocean,  broad  river  abruptly  stopping 
the  community's  growth  in  one  direction,  some- 
times it  is  a  river  of  moderate  size  on  both  banks 
of  which  the  city  spreads,  and  sometimes  only  a 
small  stream  winding  its  way  through  the  town,  a 
minor  incident  in  the  community's  life. 

The  line  of  contact  with  this  water  body  is 
usually  a  place  of  intensive  use,  and  of  importance 
in  the  town's  career.  In  most  cases  the  water  front 
is  capable  of  much  improvement,  for  reasons  and 
in  ways  which  we  shall  discover. 

The  Problem  of  the  Water  Front. — The  term 
"water  front"  suggests  at  first  an  elaborate  shore 
line  of  lake  or  ocean,  but  the  term  is  not  to  be 
understood  as  limited  to  this  meaning.  The  small 
stream  of  the  moderate  sized  community  may  have 
a  waterfront  which  presents  a  problem  as  real  in 
its  way  as  that  of  the  larger  city. 

The  opportunity  of  securing  a  double  benefit 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

from  the  use  and  appearance  of  the  water  front 
seems  to  have  escaped  the  minds  of  most  of  our 
towns  and  cities.  In  the  pursuit  of  wealth  at  the 
expense  of  other  qualities,  our  towns  have  plun- 
dered their  own  resources.  Beauty  at  the  water 
front  hardly  has  been  thought  of,  but  worse  than 
this,  seldom  is  even  the  utmost  use  secured.  In- 
dustries of  all  kinds,  railroads  and  shipping  facili- 
ties where  the  water  body  is  of  sufficient  size,  elbow 
one  another  for  space  upon  this  coveted  area,  each 
mindful  only  of  its  own  gain  and  not  of  the  public 
interest;  with  the  usual  result  that,  as  the  town 
reaches  even  middle  age,  the  heritage  of  its  water 
front,  which  it  then  begins  to  appreciate,  is  lost  to 
it  forever. 

When  this  stage  has  been  reached,  then  as  if 
disgusted  with  conditions  which  could  have  been 
avoided  by  proper  forethought,  our  American  town 
turns  its  back  upon  its  water  front,  giving  all  atten- 
tion to  improvement  in  growth  that  takes  place  in 
the  opposite  direction.  If  we  deliberately  look  for 
the  meanest  parts  of  the  average  American  town, 
we  shall  in  all  probability  find  them  along  the  old 
water  front  of  the  town,  which  in  many  a  com- 
munity has  become  at  once  "the  despair  of  the 
engineer  and  the  sorrow  of  the  real  estate  dealer." 

Use  and  Beauty  at  the  Water  Front. — The  pic- 
ture just  described  is  not  a  pleasant  one.  Yet  such 
truths  must  be  faced  if  we  would  work  for  improve- 

70 


THE  WATER  FRONT 

ment.  It  is  to  be  kept  in  mind  as  one  of  the  fore- 
most principles  of  town  improvement  that  beauty 
in  the  city  is  never  to  be  advocated  at  the  expense 
of  usefulness. 

In  making  mention,  therefore,  of  the  steps  that 
may  be  taken  for  improvement  of  the  water  front 
of  our  town,  let  us  not  imagine  that  it  is  beauty 
alone  which  we  have  in  mind.  We  are  dealing  with 
a  part  of  the  city  which  serves  an  important  pur- 
pose in  the  city's  life.  We  would  not  interfere  with 
usefulness  to  gain  beauty,  but  in  striving  for  use- 
fulness we  shall  try  to  get  what  beauty  we  can. 

If  a  city  possesses  a  water  front  which  is  of  use 
for  shipping  purposes,  it  would  obviously  be  wrong 
to  urge  that  shipping  be  discontinued  in  order  that 
the  area  might  be  used  as  a  park.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  park  development  along  the  water  front 
may  better  serve  the  community  than  the  usurpa- 
tion of  the  area  by  private  business. 

Let  us  draw  what  lessons  we  can  from  towns  and 
cities  possessing  the  kinds  of  water  bodies  which 
were  mentioned,  endeavoring  to  see  what  princi- 
ples may  be  applied  in  the  handling  of  water- 
front problems. 

The  Town  with  the  Small  Stream. — A  large 
number  of  towns  are  situated  upon  the  banks  of 
small  streams.  Evident  as  a  thing  of  some  beauty 
when  the  town  was  young,  often  elements  of  beauty 
become  lost  as  the  town  grows.  Used  at  first  as 

71 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

a  source  of  water  supply  for  industries  along  its 
bank,  the  shore  line  has  at  length  been  built  up  and 
encroached  upon  until  the  stream  has  been  hidden 
from  sight,  or,  where  visible,  is  dark  and  heavy 
with  the  waste  of  the  mill.  Perhaps  a  part  of  the 
stream's  edge  has  been  used  as  a  dumping  ground, 
narrowing  the  bed  until  in  time  of  freshet  the  banks 
overflow  upon  the  neighboring  region — a  danger  to 
life  and  property.  Or  again,  following  the  easiest 
method  at  the  moment,  the  stream  has  been  used 
as  a  place  into  which  to  lead  sewage,  with  the  re- 
sult that  the  stream  becomes  a  carrier  of  disease 
to  the  town  on  its  bank — a  menace  to  health  and 
an  offense  to  sight. 

The  first  step  necessary  to  improve  such  a  con- 
dition as  this  would  be  to  stop  all  sewage  emptying 
into  it.  The  next  would  be  to  compel  industries 
to  filter  outflowing  water  from  their  mills  and  thus 
prevent  pollution  and  discoloration  by  manufactur- 
ing waste.  When  such  measures  seem  next  to  im- 
possible of  accomplishment,  the  stream  should  be 
covered  over  completely  and  made  to  flow  in  a 
conduit  of  sufficient  size  to  allow  for  maximum 
flow  in  times  of  high  water. 

Private  effort  will  count  for  much  in  the  im- 
provement of  the  water  front  of  a  small  stream. 
By  planting  stream  banks  and  clearing  away  rub- 
bish cast  upon  them,  the  small  stream  may  be  made 
an  ornament  to  the  town. 

72 


THE  WATER  FRONT 

In  the  open  parts  of  town,  land  bordering  the 
stream  might  be  purchased  and  converted  into  a 
small  public  park.  When  the  stream  spoken  of 
runs  by  the  rear  of  private  property,  as  is  some- 
times the  case,  the  adjacent  property  owners  might 
be  induced  to  dedicate  it  to  the  public  as  a  small 
park.  An  attractive  path  might  follow  along  grass- 
covered  stream  banks  with  trees  and  shrubbery 
planted  in  attractive  groups. 

The  Town  with  a  River. — The  condition  of  the 
banks  of  a  river  within  the  town  are  of  special  im- 
portance in  that  their  effect  for  good  or  ill  is 
double;  from  an  opposite  shore  banks  are  seen 
which  in  the  single  shore  line  on  lake  or  ocean 
would  be  literally  overlooked. 

On  the  river  front  of  the  average  city  the  en- 
croachment of  industries  takes  place  just  as  on 
small  stream  banks,  but  in  a  greater  degree.  Rail- 
roads are  quick  to  claim  room  along  the  river,1  and 
behind  these  crowd  the  warehouses  and  manufactur- 
ing establishments  which  they  serve.  In  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  the  river  flows  through  a  retail  district, 
where  stores  have  crowded  out  on  to  the  bridge, 
shutting  the  water  from  sight;  a  passer  over  the 
river,  as  on  old  London  Bridge,  sees  shop  fronts 
on  either  hand,  but  nothing  of  the  water  itself. 
Where  the  river  is  at  the  rear  of  residence  property 
the  river  bank  is  sometimes  used  as  a  dumping 
1  Refer  above,  p,  60,  par.  2. 

73 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

place  for  rubbish,  or  for  a  convenient  outlet  for 
sewage  as  in  the  case  of  the  small  stream. 

Fortunately  there  are  numerous  examples  to 
show  us  what  improvement  of  the  river  front  can 
accomplish.  Paris  is  perhaps  the  best  example  of 
how  a  river  can  be  made  to  contribute  to  the  at- 
tractiveness of  a  city.  Numerous  quays  of  well 
constructed  masonry  have  been  built  at  which 
shipping  can  be  carried  on.  Well  proportioned 
bridges  span  the  Seine.  In  Paris  the  bridge  be- 
comes one  of  the  chief  modes  of  expression  of  the 
love  of  the  city  beautiful.  Its  bridges  are  one  of 
the  glories  of  the  city.2 

The  Thames  Embankment  in  London  is  an 
example  of  the  dignity  which  a  properly  treated 
river  front  may  acquire.  There  a  wall  of  masonry 
with  a  wide  drive  surmounting  it  forms  one  of  the 
most  attractive  parts  of  London.  Frankfort  and 
Lyons  show  us  how  a  river  front  may  be  used  for 
the  double  purpose  of  business  and  pleasure;  the 
treelined  boulevard  is  seen  above,  while  shipping  is 
carried  on  below;  manufactures  which  lie  on  the 
bank  take  freely  of  the  water,  but  are  not  per- 
mitted ungratefully  to  cast  back  defilement  into  the 
stream. 

Many  of  our  American  cities,  though  they  have 
asked  what  they  might  do,  have  as  yet  done  nothing 
in  the  way  of  improvement.  The  chief  lesson  for 

2  Cf .  below,  Chap.  XII,  p.  149,  par.  2. 

74 


••„?•:'•::  '•*  > 

.v.V-v 

v,;K  >'•' 


AN   UNIMPROVED   RIVERFRONT.       WILKES-BARRE,    PA. 

Such  a  waterfront  is  neither  useful  nor  sightly. 


THE    SAME    RIVERFRONT   AFTER    IMPROVEMENT 

A  forceful  example  for  other  towns  and  cities. 


THE  WATER  FRONT 

our  towns  and  cities  in  this  regard  would  be  that 
the  reservation  of  the  water  front  for  the  city's 
enjoyment  had  best  be  made  early,  for  in  later  life 
wresting  this  bit  from  the  hands  of  private  in- 
terests will  be  a  task  to  discourage  even  stout 
hearts. 

The  part  of  the  river  front  not  occupied  by  ship- 
ping, offers  special  opportunity  for  transformation 
into  park  land.3 

The  Town  on  Lake  or  Ocean. — For  the  town  or 
city  on  lake  or  ocean,  the  harbor  is  the  natural 
point  of  entrance  into  the  town;  yet  often  this 
fact  is  wholly  lost  sight  of.  The  traveler  arriv- 
ing at  port  in  many  of  our  great  American  cities 
is  received,  as  it  were,  at  the  back  door.  This 
feeling  that  the  city  is  not  doing  its  part  in  meeting 
the  incomer  half-way,  has  led  a  few  of  our  large 
cities*  to  consider  plans  for  creating  a  worthy 
portal  leading  the  incomer  by  an  appropriate  route 
from  the  water's  edge  to  the  business  heart  of  the 
city.  The  fact  that  the  plans  have  not  yet  been 
carried  out  cannot  bar  the  sponsors  for  meriting  a 
great  deal  of  praise  for  the  conception  of  such 
schemes.  The  Charles  River  Embankment  in 
Boston,  offers  a  good  example  of  how  an  extensive 
water  body  lying  well  within  a  city  may  be  im- 

*Cf.  below,  p.  87,  par.  4. 

4  Notably   New  York   and   San   Francisco.     Architectural 
competitions. 

75 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

proved.  The  shore  line  of  Buenos  Aires  is  ex- 
ceptional in  its  handsome  treatment.  The  Chicago 
plan  for  the  reclamation  of  its  water  front  has  merit 
enough  to  justify  its  imitation  where  the  im- 
provement of  a  portion  of  lake  shore  is  under 
consideration.  Cleveland  and  Buffalo,  situated  on 
the  inland  lakes,  are  cities  which  have  let  thought 
of  the  water  front  go  unheeded  only  to  awaken  at 
length  to  find  much  of  their  birthright  gone.  In 
the  treatment  of  water  fronts  there  should  be  a 
proper  regard  paid  to  the  preservation  of  whatever 
has  picturesqueness,  and  historic  interest  in  both 
structures  and  land  forms,  provided  that  usefulness 
is  not  interfered  with. 

Summary. — Most  towns  and  cities  exhibit  the 
presence  of  some  water  body  either  the  shore  of 
a  small  stream,  river,  lake  or  ocean.  The  oppor- 
tunity of  getting  the  utmost  from  the  water  front 
has  been  lost  to  most  communities  since  they  have 
usually  been  unmindful  of  its  value  to  the  com- 
munity as  a  whole  until  private  interests  have  been 
allowed  to  lay  claim  to  it.  The  average  water 
'front  has  unfortunately  become  a  place  of  little 
public  use,  and  a  place  of  mean  appearance. 

The  problems  to  be  met  in  the  case  of  water 
fronts  differ,  but  they  are  alike  in  that  the  question 
of  use  and  appearance  both  play  an  important  part 
in  the  solution. 


76 


CHAPTER  VII 

PARKS  AND  OTHER  PUBLIC  OPEN  SPACES 

IN  the  town's  public  open  spaces  we  have  to  deal 
with  what  are  among  the  earliest  and  the  latest 
conscious  products  of  civic  art;  earliest  in  that 
open  spaces  for  public  use  appear  in  primitive 
communities ;  and  latest  in  that  the  movement  for  a 
systematic  creation  of  parks  in  cities  has  come  into 
its  own  almost  within  the  present  generation.  With 
the  exception  of  some  of  the  largest  cities,  most 
of  the  parks  of  the  country  are  an  acquisition  of 
the  last  twenty  years.  It  is  cause  for  encourage- 
ment to  American  town  improvers  that  in  the 
matter  of  park  development  our  country  leads  the 
world. 

In  the  subject  mentioned,  we  are  concerned  with 
an  important  phase  of  town  improvement  rendered 
so  first  by  reason  of  the  intimate  connection  of 
open  spaces  to  the  town  plan,  and  second  by  the  vital 
relation  of  parks  to  daily  life  and  to  the  health  of 
the  citizens. 

Various  Kinds  of  Public  Open  Spaces. — At  the 
outset  it  is  evident  that  the  open  spaces  of  public 

77 


TOWN    IMPROVEMENT 

character  in  the  town  serve  various  purposes.  A 
listed  arrangement  according  to  use  and  character 
would  yield  the  following:1 

1.  Public  or  Monumental  Squares — Plazas. 

2.  Minor  Open  Spaces — "Places"  and  In-town  Parks. 

3.  Natural,  Country,  or  Landscape  Parks. 

These  will  be  considered  in  turn,  the  endeavor 
being  to  discover  the  origin  of  each  type,  its  typical 
location  on  the  town  plan,  its  function,  and  some  of 
the  principles  involved  in  its  layout. 

The  Public  or  Monumental  Square. — Through 
history  there  has  persisted  the  custom  of  marking 
the  center  of  the  city,  or  the  junction  of  its  most 
important  streets  by  an  open  area.  Such  an  open 
space  served  the  purpose  of  providing  for  public 
gatherings  and  the  needs  of  daily  life.2 

Modern  towns  and  cities  have  felt  intuitively 
the  value  of  the  public  square  as  lending  dignity  to 
the  main  focal  point  of  the  community. 

As  towns  differ  in  personality  so  these  central 
squares  differ  in  various  places,  from  the  quiet 
"green"  or  "common"  of  the  New  England  town, 
to  the  more  pretentious  monumental  central  square 
and  plaza  of  other  communities.  In  the  average 
town  the  central  square  consists  of  an  open  space  of 

*The  Public  Playground  is  here  omitted  from  the  group 
of  Public  Open  Spaces.  A  consideration  of  it  will  be  found 
in  the  next  chapter. 

2  Vid.  par.  3,  p.  154,  The  Civic  Center. 

78 


PARKS   AND  OTHER  PUBLIC  OPEN  SPACES 

limited  area  with  geometric  curbs  and  perhaps  a 
monument  at  the  center.  The  buildings  that  face 
upon  the  square  as  a  rule  play  too  little  part  in 
the  effect  of  the  whole,  because  usually  unworthy. 

That  the  average  public  square  falls  short  of 
what  it  might  be  is  not  to  be  denied.  There  is  in 
this  fact  not  cause  for  despair,  but  rather  an  in- 
centive to  the  creation  of  better  things.  When  one 
considers  the  prominence  of  the  central  open  space 
of  most  towns,  it  is  surprising  to  see  so  general  a 
disregard  for  appearances. 

The  monumental  square  or  plaza  is  best  arranged 
as  an  open  space  to  which  the  features  within  con- 
tribute to  a  sense  of  breadth  and  civic  dignity.  The 
arrangement  of  it  is  usually  properly  in  formal  or 
geometric  style.  The  proximity  of  geometrically  laid 
out  curbs  and  sidewalks  demand  a  corresponding 
formality  of  treatment.  Whatever  monumental 
features  are  here  found  should  be  of  real  artistic 
worth,  and  have  a  setting  in  keeping  with  their 
prominence  in  the  public  eye.  Shrubbery  should  be 
low  and  within  beds  that  hold  a  true  place  in  the 
formal  plan.  Here  is  one  place  where  flower  and 
carpet  bedding  are  appropriate. 

It  is  rare  that  a  bandstand  can  be  made  to  appear 
a  dignified  feature  in  a  square  of  the  kind  we  are 
considering.  Provision  for  drinking  basins  and 
fountains,  flagpole,  seats  and  comfort  stations  are 
features  that  may  properly  call  for  placement. 

79 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

In  the  planning  of  this  and  other  types  of  open 
spaces  within  the  town,  the  arrangement  should  be 
such  as  to  favor,  and  never  to  interfere  with  the 
flow  of  foot  and  wheel  traffic.  Any  arrangement 
which  conflicts  therewith  should  be  avoided.  De- 
sign and  type  of  ornamentation  should  keep  pace 
with  modern  requirements.  Ways  which  do  not 
serve  present  day  needs  should  be  at  once  revised. 

Caution  should  be  exercised  in  giving  too  free 
use  of  the  central  square  to  street  car  lines.  It  is 
proper  that  street  cars  should  pass  through  the 
central  square,  but  not  to  use  it  as  a  terminus  to 
an  extent  which  conflicts  with  its  best  use  by  the 
city  as  is  not  infrequently  allowed. 

Minor  Open  Spaces. — In  nearly  all  towns  and 
cities  there  are  open  spaces  which  by  reason  of 
design,  size,  location  and  purpose  lie  neither  in  the 
division  of  monumental  squares  nor  in  that  of 
natural  parks.  They  result  sometimes  from  a  de- 
liberate planning,  and  sometimes  seemingly  by  acci- 
dent in  the  planning  of  streets. 

This  group  of  minor  open  spaces  is  of  special  in- 
terest for  several  reasons.  They  are  of  such  fre- 
quent occurrence  as  to  be  almost  omnipresent  in  a 
journey  about  the  city;  they  are  distinctly  interest- 
ing in  their  variety  of  size,  shape,  and  situation, 
they  serve  a  variety  of  purposes  and  therefore  offer 
infinite  special  problems  in  their  arrangement. 

The  function  of  the  minor  open  space  is  primarily 
80 


PARKS  AND  OTHER  PUBLIC  OPEN   SPACES 

to  offer  civic  embellishment;  in  certain  cases  it 
serves  also  to  aid  the  movement  of  traffic.  Unlike 
the  natural  park,  by  reason  of  its  limited  size,  it 
cannot  depend  for  its  effect  upon  scenery  except  in- 
cidentally. At  its  very  elbows  crowds  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  town.  Its  aim,  therefore,  should  be 
to  make  itself  a  part  of  its  surroundings,  offering 
a  sense  of  breadth,  and,  in  the  degree  which  seems 
appropriate,  the  sight  of  trees  and  turf. 

The  minor  open  space  may  be  any  of  the  follow- 
ing types: 

1.  A  simple  widening  of  the  street  within  the  block 

or  residence  "place"  for  the  purpose  of  enhanc- 
ing property. 

2.  It  may  be  the  city  block  residence  park. 

3.  Or  it  may  be  the  street  remnant  formed  at  the 

junction  of   traffic   thoroughfares   or   residence 
streets. 

The  Simple  Street  Widening  or  Residence 
Place. — The  first  mentioned  has  become  familiar  to 
us  through  the  examples  of  London's  f  enced-in  resi- 
dence "squares"  which  have  been  copied  in  some 
parts  of  our  own  older  cities.  Residences  face  upon 
the  usual  limited  open  space,  which  may  be  of  a 
rectangular,  round,  or  oval  shape. 

With  the  general  removal  of  fences  the  type's 
development  is  seen  in  the  residence  "place,"  of 
which  many  interesting  examples  can  be  found  in 

81 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

some  of  our  cities.  In  the  center  parking  strip  be- 
tween the  roadways  of  such  "places"  grass, 
shrubs,  and  trees  are  usually  planted,  compen- 
sating in  full  measure  for  comparatively  small 
front  door  yards.  Such  a  pleasant  treatment  tends 
to  stabilize  the  value  of  property  bordering  upon 
it.  Though  the  reservation  of  such  an  open  space 
demands  a  sacrifice  of  land  for  the  center  parking, 
the  sacrifice  has  usually  proved  to  be  a  good  in- 
vestment. 

The  City  Block  Park. — The  usual  town  plan 
shows  reservations  of  city  blocks  here  and  there 
marked  off  into  park  areas,  for  the  purpose  of 
providing  close  at  hand  places  of  relaxation  and 
refreshment  for  those  of  the  closely  built  residence 
districts.  Incidentally  these  open  spaces  offer  in- 
terest to  the  traveler  about  town.  Very  often  the 
city  later  grows  to  the  extent  that  these  city  blocks 
become  downtown  squares. 

This  type  of  park  is  a  familiar  one.  Unlike  the 
monumental  square  or  plaza  wheel  traffic  is  con- 
fined to  the  reservation's  outer  edge,  the  central 
portion  being  given  to  walks,  planting,  and  other 
features. 

In  the  parks  of  this  character  civic  art  has  an 
opportunity  which  it  has  often  failed  to  seize.  Not 
that  labor  has  not  been  expended  upon  them,  but 
that  much  which  has  been  done  has  been  badly 
done.  The  city  block  park  is  often  anything  but 

82 


PARKS  AND  OTHER  PUBLIC  OPEN  SPACES 

lovely.  Poor  statuary,  illogically  planned  paths, 
cast-iron  ornaments  and  poorly  arranged  planting, 
occupy  valuable  space,  crowding  out  all  restfulness 
and  dignity. 

Because  the  location  of  such  parks  varies,  and 
because  conditions  of  traffic  and  surroundings  place 
such  demands  upon  the  plan,  no  single  rule  can 
be  laid  down  as  to  this  kind  of  park's  design.  No- 
where is  there  greater  need  to  let  the  virtue  of 
frankness  lead  in  the  matter  of  arrangement. 
Generally  the  answer  to  the  question  of  whether 
paths  should  be  straight  or  curved  should  be  sug- 
gested by  the  park's  surroundings,  formality  being 
dictated  by  the  presence  of  architectural  structures 
at  the  edge,  and  informality  by  broad  lawns  and 
tree-dotted  residence  grounds  near  at  hand.  Entire 
naturalism  is  as  out  of  place  in  the  heart  of  towns 
as  geometric  lines  are  on  broken  or  wooded  ground. 

The  Minor  Traffic  Open  Space  or  Street  Rem- 
nant.— In  the  street  system  of  many  towns  there  are 
to  be  found  some  small  left-over  triangles  here  and 
there  where  streets  converge.  They  may  occur 
frequently  and  at  any  point  on  plan.  To  make 
small  park  areas  of  these  is  not  to  demand  that 
land  be  appropriated,  but  simply  that  it  be  reclaimed 
for  use.  Not  always  are  they  of  sufficiently  large 
extent  to  be  called  parks. 

It  is  one  of  the  functions  of  street  remnant  parks 
to  assist  the  distribution  of  traffic  about  them. 

83 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

Found  amid  architectural  surroundings  near  the 
heart  of  town,  a  monumental  treatment  of  the  space 
is  often  appropriate;  in  the  outlying  districts,  a 
simple  grassing  and  shrub  planting  may  be  best. 
Always  in  the  treatment  of  them  the  utmost  ap- 
parent breadth  should  be  obtained.  High  planting 
should  be  avoided  because  of  the  danger  to  traffic. 

The  Landscape  or  Country  Park. — By  "Country 
Park"  we  mean  the  larger  kind  of  reservation  which 
is  situated  toward  the  edge  of  town  where  some 
bit  of  attractive  natural  scenery  calls  for  preser- 
vation. 

The  aim  and  function  of  this  larger  kind  of  park 
is  thus  well  put  by  F.  L.  Olmsted,  Sr.,3  the  Amer- 
ican pioneer  park  developer. 

"We  want  ground  to  which  people  may  easily 
go  after  their  day's  work  is  done,  and  where  they 
may  stroll  for  an  hour,  seeing,  hearing,  and  feeling 
nothing  of  the  bustle  and  jar  of  the  streets,  where 
they  shall,  in  effect,  find  the  city  put  far  awa/  from 
them.  We  want  the  greatest  possible  contrast  with 
the  streets  and  the  shops  and  the  rooms  of  the 
town  which  will  be  conversant  with  convenience 
and  the  preservation  of  good  order  and  neatness. 
We  want  especially,  the  greatest  possible  contrast 
with  the  restraining  and  confining  conditions  of  the 
town." 

•  Public  Parks.    F.  L.  Olmsted,  p.  47.    (Pamphlet  published 
in  Brookline,  Mass.,  in  1902.) 

84 


PARKS  AND  OTHER  PUBLIC  OPEN  SPACES 

Thus  at  once  we  see  that  the  country  park  in  its 
function  appears  as  the  complement  of  the  city. 
Its  purpose  is  to  offer  what  the  town  cannot 
offer.  The  theory  which  would  justify  the  expen- 
diture of  the  considerable  sums  of  money  spent  for 
parks  is  the  theory  that  parks  are  a  necessity,  as 
necessary  in  their  way  to  the  welfare  of  the  citi- 
zens as  provision  for  water  supply  and  sewage 
disposal. 

In  planning  the^ountry  park's  _  dey eloprnenL-a-. 
few  principles  shouldbe  kept  in  mind.  Accommo- 
dation for^mmiberTl^rpeople  *  demands  the  estab-_ 
~^m\5\t^oi_T02idsf  paths,  and  places  of  shelter. 
The  best  planning  suggests  that  these  should  all  be 
made  as  inconspicuous  as  possible,  being  thought 
of  not  as  ends  in  themselves,  but  as  subordinate 
features  to  the  park's  general  function.  Nature 
unadorned  is  the  quality  which  this  type  of  park 
should  appear  to  possess.  This  does  not  mean  that 
man's  hand  should  be  withheld.  The  art  which 
conceals  itself  in  its  product  is  the  greatest  art.  In 
the  landscape  or  country  park  paths  and  roads 
should  accentuate  broad  open  spaces  by  bounding 
rather  than  traversing  them.  The  rear  property 
lines  of  private  residences  should  not  be  permitted 

*"The  new  attitude  toward  parks,"  writes  Gov.  M.  G. 
Brumbaugh,  of  Pennsylvania,  to  Pres.  I.  H.  McFarland  of 
the  American  Civic  Assn.,  "is  that  they  shall  be  service 
parks — not  merely  ornamental  adornments  for  the  exclusive 
use  of  the  few  who  ride,  but  for  the  millions  who  walk." 

85 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

to  abut  park  property;  where  there  is  danger  of 
this  a  drive  should  be  placed  between  with  a  screen- 
ing plantation  at  the  park's  edge. 

Various  kinds  of  recreation  are  to  be  provided 
for  in  the  modern  park.  Besides  provision  for 
driving  and  picknicking,  tennis,  golf,  basebajl^ 


other  games  may  well~5e"encouraged,  each  within 


its  proper  area.  But  let  it  be  remembered  that  a 
playground  is  one  thing  and  a  natural  park  another. 
Areas  for J2laygroiinrlgj  if  they  demand  conspicuous 
artificial  construction,  should  be  provided_foiL4part 
from  the  naturalistic  scenes  of  the  open  or  wooded 
park.  Many  parks  have  had  portions  spoiled  by 
the  presence  of  tennis  backstops  and  such  features 
in  the  midst  of  natural  scenery. 

The  per  cent  of  city  area  which  ideally  should 
be  devoted  to  park  land  is  a  difficult  matter  to 
estimate  since  communities  show  varied  needs. 
Judging  from  the  statement  of  good  authorities, 
however,  it  would  seem  that  from  five  to  ten  per 
cent  of  city  area,  or  about  one  acre  to  every  two 
hundred  inhabitants,  would  be  a  proper  amount.  A 
recommendation  would  be  that  there  should  be  an 
accessible  park  area  within  easy  walking  distance, 
or  within  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  of  every  family 
in  the  city. 

A  General  Consideration  of  the  Choice  of  Park 
Site. — Of  great  importance  in  the  success  of  the 
park  is  the  question  of  the  site.  It  has  been  said  that 

86 


PARKS  AND  OTHER  PUBLIC  OPEN  SPACES 

fully  one-half  of  the  park  land  of  the  country  has 
been  obtained  by  gift.  Many  excellent  parks  have 
been  secured  in  this  way,  but  it  is  a  sound  prin- 
ciple that  the  best  results  are  likely  to  be  obtained 
when  the  municipality  is  free  to  make  a  deliberate 
choice. 

Accessibility  by  the  public  is  all  important.  The 
location  of  parks  should  be  such  that  the  poor  as 
well  as  rich  can  reach  and  enjoy  them  ;  and  further, 
their  proper  distribution  on  the  town  plan  should 
be  studied  with  care. 

A  location  to  the  side  of  town  from  which  pre- 
vailing winds  come  is  a  good  one  for  a  country 
park,  insuring  to  the  town  pure  air  from  that 
quarter.  This  may  prove  a  valuable  protection  in 
the  case  of  industrial  establishments. 

A  site  with  water  is  strongly  to  be  recommended. 
Its  presence  is  always  retreshmg.  Land  bordering 
Ttvefs""and  streams  may  often  be  made  into  excel- 
ignf~park  land  :  ojd  water  f  rontsjind  low  land  may 
be  thus  transformed.  Whenever  narrow  strips  of 
land  on  both  sides  oJf  a  stream  are  taken  for  a^ 
public  reservation,  the  width_of~i^  stream 


an  appearance  of  breadthjojhe  reservation.  High, 
promts  in  the  city,  too,  afforda  pleasurable  pros- 
pect  and  make  interesting  sites  for  park?,  ]ji  rhnns- 
ing  one  should  remember  thatland  useful  for_no_ 
purpose  will  sometimes  make  the  best  park 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

Delay  in  choosing  may  mean  loss  of  opportunity 
or  necessitate  increased  expenditure  later  on.  It 
frequently  happens  that  land  once  purchasable  at  a 
normal  figure  for  park  purposes  has  finally  risen  to 
a  figure  which  is  prohibitive,  when  the  community 
makes  up  its  mind  to  purchase. 

A  Park  System  for  Towns. — As  soon  as  possible 
the  parks  of  a  community  should  be  united  into  a 
park  system.  This  does  not  necessarily  mean  that 
there  is  to  be  a  chain  of  elaborate  parks  connected 
by  wide  boulevards,  although  it  may  be  so!  As 
applied  to  the  average  town  the  term  park  system 
would  mean  rather  a  unity  of  aim  in  the  creation 
and  development  of  its  parks. 

Though  it  is  sometimes  proper  to  develop  to 
completion,  one  park  in  the  town  ahead  of  others 
to  serve  as  an  example  of  what  the  others  may  be, 
as  a  rule  the  needs  of  all  parts  of  the  town  are  to 
be  considered,  and  the  park  in  question  is  not  to 
be  developed  at  the  expense  of  the  rest.  By  uniting 
the  parks  of  a  community  into  a  system  their  sphere 
of  influence  is  greatly  enlarged  and  they  are  then 
more  appreciated  by  the  citizens  as  a  whole.  If 
the  parks  can  be  connected  by  attractive  parkways 
their  total  effect  is  increased  so  much  the  more.5 

"The  Metropolitan  Park  System  of  Boston  may  be  cited 
as  an  example  of  a  nearly  ideal  system.  Here  there  are  about 
fourteen  different  reservations  located  in  Boston  or  adjacent 
towns  within  a  radius  of  about  fifteen  miles  from  the  State 
House.  At  least  thirty-five  miles  of  parkway  connect  them  all 

88 


PARKS  AND  OTHER  PUBLIC  OPEN   SPACES 

Park  Acquisition  and  Management.— Park  lagd 
may  be  sometimes  a r quired  hy-gffo-5— Ai  'Mli^i  llm^s 
it  must  be  bought  outright  and  its  development 
financed  by  the  municipality.  In  European  coun- 
tries a  large  percentage  of  present  park  land  was 
obtained  as  grants  from  nobility,  as  when  the  ex- 
tensive lands  about  a  place  were  turned  over  for 
public  use. 

Whatever  the  city  must  pay  out  for  its  parks,  in 
dollars  and  cents,  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that 
the  cost  of  parks  is  relative  rather  than  absolute, 
a  large  park  being  no  harder  for  a  large  city  to 
support  than  a  small  park  is  for  a  small  town. 

Earks  are  regularly  under  the 


"Park  Board"  elected  by  the  citizens  or  appointed 
by   the   mayor   or   council.      The   Park^BoanLJa 
"generally    made    up    of    interested    citizens__j 
&ei  v  e  "without  pay.     Its  "business  is  t(^j3ass_upon 
^11  policIelTof  park  acquirementt  planning,  and  4ij 
Iceep.     It  is  of  benefitto  have  the_  terms  oJLthe~ 
Park  Board  arranged  in  such  a  way  that  there  is  a 
gradual  rather  than  a  complete  change  in  the  per^ 
sonnel  of  the  Board  with  each  election ;  one  member, 
"for  example,  retiring  each  year,    jnjthis  way  its 
policy  is  kept  fairly  constant^     Nothing  is  more 
detrimental  to  park  development  than  a  constantly 
together,  from  the  Lynn  Woods  on  the  north  to  the  Blue 
Hills  Reservation  on  the  south,  by  which  one  may  go  from 
one  to  any  other,  without  leaving  the  park  system. 
•  Cf .  p.  209,  par.  3. 

89 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

changing  policy.  In  the  employ  of  the  Park- 
there  is  usually  a  Park  SuperintendeBtJB[hasejduties 
are  to  look  after  development  and  upkeep.  In  his 
hands  lies  much  responsibility  lor"  tH¥  "success  of 
the  town's  parks.  Too  few  communities  rely  in 
matters  of  planning  and  lay  out  upon  the  services 
of  one  who  is  really  trained  in  park  design;  too 
many,  upon  the  talent  of  a  local  contractor  whom 
chance  and  a  pull  have  landed  in  the  position  of 
Park  Superintendent.  The  result  is  almost  certain 
to  be  the  home-made,  and  wholly  unsatisfactory  type 
of  park  to  which  one  can  hardly  point  with  pride. 
The  carrying  out  of  special  park  work  is  usually 
done  by  contract  with  local  or  other  firms,  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Park  Superintendent;  the 
work  of  regular  upkeep  being  done  by  regularly  re- 
tained employees.  The  conducting  of  establish- 
ments of  refreshment  or  amusement  in  the  parks, 
is  usually  managed  in  the  form  of  "concessions" 
to  private  parties  who  pay  to  the  city  a  fee  for 
the  time  privilege  of  operating  certain  of  them 
within  the  park.  A  more  ideal  method,  and  one 
which  has  been  found  practicable  would  be  to  have 
this  work  undertaken  as  part  of  park  administra- 
tion,7 though  this  would  add  a  good  deal  to  the 
duties  of  those  in  charge. 

f  Cf .  Making  City  Parks  Self  Supporting.  Geo.  A.  Parker, 
Supt.  Parks,  Hartford,  Conn.  Spec.  Bulletin,  Am.  Civic 
Assn. 

90 


AN  OLD  MILL  SITE  MADE  INTO  A  BEAUTIFUL  PARK  FEATURE 

Youngstown,  Ohio. 


A  FEATURE  OF  NATURAL  BEAUTY  DESTROYED 

This  brook,  which  might  have  been  a  park  ornament,  is  made  to  resemble 
an  open  sewer.     Cleveland,  Ohio. 


PARKS  AND  OTHER  PUBLIC  OPEN  SPACES 

Summary. — The  systematic  creation  of  parks  for 
cities  is  a  modern  movement.  Parks  form  an  im- 
portant phase  of  town  improvement  in  being  vitally 
connected  with  the  general  appearance  of  the  town 
and  the  health  of  the  citizens. 

The  various  kinds  or  public  open  spaces  in  the 
town  fall  into  three  main  classes:  (a)  Public  or 
Monumental  Squares;  (b)  Minor  Open  Spaces,  and 
(c)  Natural,  Country,  or  Landscape  Parks.  Each 
type  is  distinct,  and  calls  for  special  treatment. 

The  question  of  the  choice  of  site  is  important 
to  the  success  of  any  park,  as  is  also  its  location 
with  regard  to  the  distribution  of  population.  It  is 
well  for  a  town  to  have  its  parks  united  into  a 
park  system,  even  though  not  a  pretentious  sys- 
tem, rather  than  to  have  its  parks  scattered  and 
unrelated  units. 

Towns  and  cities  acquire  parks  in  various  ways. 
Much  responsibility  rests  with  the  Park  Board  and 
especially  with  the  Park  Superintendent  in  insuring 
the  success  of  the  parks  in  any  community. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

SCHOOLS,  SCHOOL  GROUNDS  AND  SCHOOL 
GARDENS 

FREE  education  in  this  country  is  a  product  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  Up  to  that  time  schools 
were  generally  available  only  for  those  who  could 
pay  a  considerable  tuition.  Since  the  Civil  War 
public  school  attendance  between  certain  ages  has 
been  made  universal.  It  has  been  found  to  be  true 
beyond  a  doubt  that  poverty,  vice,  and  crime  in 
adults  bears  a  direct  relation  to  illiteracy,  and  that 
by  keeping  illiteracy  at  a  minimum,  such  tenden- 
cies can  be  in  part  overcome.  "The  test  of  the 
intellectual  and  moral  conditions  existing  in  a  com- 
munity will  always  be  found  in  the  schools  that 
are  maintained.  This  is  especially  true  because 
through  the  schools  the  continuity  of  institutions 
and  race  experiences  are  handed  down  from  genera- 
tion to  generation."1  These  words  by  a  prominent 
educator  suggest  the  importance  of  the  public  school 
in  the  life  of  the  nation. 

The  Prominence  of  Public  Schools  in  the  Life 
of   the   Community. — Statutes   universally   require 
1  The  Making  of  a  Town,  by  F.  L.  McVey,  p.  61. 
92 


SCHOOLS  AND  SCHOOL  GROUNDS 

that  elementary  schools  be  established  and  main- 
tained in  all  areas  of  local  government,  with  the 
understanding  that  they  be  non-sectarian  and  that 
expenses  be  largely  paid  from  the  general  tax.2  It 
is  a  fact  that  the  amount  spent  for  the  building  and 
maintenance  of  public  schools  is  usually  the  largest 
item  on  the  town's  budget,  ranging  from  one-fourth 
to  one-third  of  the  city's  entire  expenditure. 

American  municipalities  have  expended  vast 
amounts  of  money  on  public  schools,3  with  an  al- 
most pathetic  confidence  in  public  education  as  a 
guarantee  for  the  solution  of  all  social  problems. 
They  have  neglected  other  things  sometimes  to  pro- 
vide for  it.  Tax  payers  seldom,  if  ever,  wage 
war  on  education.  Politicians  or  party  leaders, 
quick  to  discover  this,  have  sometimes  donned  the 
mantle  of  professional  educator,  approving  every 
new  scheme  which  carries  with  it  increased  ex- 
penditure along  this  line.  The  problem  of  the  town 
and  city,  then,  is  not  so  much  to  secure  appropria- 
tions for  schools,  but  to  make  certain  that  returns 
are  comparable  to  outlay. 

The  Modern  School. — Attention  has  been  given 
in  late  years  to  making  the  school  building 
thoroughly  modern.  Equipping  with  the  latest 
conveniences  including  fire  escapes  is  general  and 

a  Cf.  Principles  and  Methods  of  Municipal  Administration, 
by  W.  B.  Munro,  p.  358. 

*Cf.  American  City  Government,  by  C.  A.  Beard,  p.  311, 
et  al. 

93 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

most  wise.  The  classic  style  is  appropriate  for 
school  buildings,  and  is  the  style  most  com- 
monly chosen.  Considerable  freedom  of  choice 
may  be  exercised,  however,  according  to  site  and 
surroundings.  The  form  of  the  modernly  con- 
structed school  building  of  size  is  found  to  be 
best  in  the  form  of  an  H  or  E,  which  gains  a 
maximum  of  sunlight  and  allows  for  ready  expan- 
sion of  the  plant  in  case  additions  are  to  be  made. 
Ordinances  generally  require  that  the  area  of  win- 
dow space  be  from  one-tenth  to  one-eighth  of  the 
floor  space  for  schoolrooms,  and  that  elementary 
schoolrooms  be  not  over  twenty-four  by  thirty-two 
feet  in  size  on  account  of  the  danger  of  eye  strain. 
A  further  stipulation  is  that  the  light  should  come 
from  one  side  of  the  room  only.  It  seems  to  have 
been  but  lately  discovered  that  children  are  of  dif- 
ferent sizes  and  that,  therefore,  in  each  of  the 
lower  schoolrooms  there  should  be  several  sizes  of 
desks  to  accommodate  the  children. 

An  increased  appreciation  of  the  possibilities  of 
developing  artistic  sense  in  the  pupils  of  all  grades 
has  resulted  in  a  wave  of  enthusiasm  in  "Art  for 
Schools."  Not  only  are  children  taught  to  draw, 
and  instructed  in  the  principles  of  design  and  nature 
study,  but  the  interiors  of  the  school  houses  them- 
selves have  been  enlivened  and  embellished  by 
copies  of  the  best  works  of  art,  which  undoubtedly 
has  a  refining  effect  upon  character  and  taste. 

94 


SCHOOLS  AND  SCHOOL  GROUNDS 

The  Location  of  the  School  Building. — In  the 
public  school  building's  appearance  and  location 
the  whole  neighborhood  is  concerned,  because  it  is 
regarded  almost  as  the  private  property  of  each 
householder  with  a  family.  Very  directly  civic 
pride  is  affected  by  it  and  Civic  Art  promulgated. 
Generally  speaking,  the  school  buildings  should  be 
located  centrally  in  the  locality  which  it  serves. 

Not  only  is  the  building's  appearance  an  im- 
portant consideration  but  so  also  is  its  setting. 
Many  good  buildings  have  been  rendered  ineffective 
in  appearance  because  of  an  improper  setting.  The 
space  demanded  for  play  about  school  buildings 
usually  assures  an  uncrowded  setting,  but  not  al- 
ways. Sometimes  the  building  is  crowded  near 
other  buildings,  but  when  this  is  done  much  archi- 
tectural beauty  is  lost. 

A  good  setting  for  a  school  is  that  at  the  end 
of  a  street.  Its  appearance  may  gain  real  im- 
pressiveness  by  its  being  so  placed.  Again,  a 
fine  setting  would  be  facing  on  a  public  park. 
Where  such  a  chance  arises  it  should  be  embraced. 
Unfortunately  favoritism  in  site  selection  and  bar- 
gains in  lots  sometimes  result  in  commonplace  set- 
ting and  a  loss  of  effect  far  exceeding  difference  in 
cost  of  land. 

Where  the  site  is  level  or  nearly  so,  the  school 
building  would  seem  to  be  best  set  near  the  center, 
and  to  the  front  of  its  lot;  where  the  site  is  uneven 

95 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

the  highest  point  of  ground,  even  if  toward  one 
side  of  the  lot,  will  be  the  most  commanding  situa- 
tion for  the  building.  Not  often  enough  are  un- 
level  sites  made  use  of.  Expensive  filling  or  cutting 
is  sometimes  done  where  a  more  beautiful  effect 
could  have  been  secured  by  adapting  the  building 
to  the  site.  Nearly  level  areas  are  desirable  for  the 
play  portion,  and  further,  regular  shaped  lots  give 
the  maximum  of  use. 

School  Ground  Arrangements. — The  modern 
school  building  is  a  thing  so  carefully  planned  that 
it  is  not  a  little  astonishing  to  find  how  little  effort 
has  usually  been  made  to  give  to  it  worthy  sur- 
roundings. School  grounds  do  not  in  most  cases  keep 
pace  with  the  structures  upon  them.  There  is  often 
lack  of  foresight  in  the  use  of  the  area,  and  evidence 
of  penuriousness  in  the  fixing  up  of  the  grounds. 

The  reason  for  this  is  that  by  the  time  the  School 
Board  has  secured  the  new  building  and  paid  the 
bills  for  it,  it  feels  as  though  its  duty  were  done— 
certainly  as  though  it  had  spent  all  of  the  money 
that  it  possibly  could.  But  this  attitude  is  a  wrong 
one.  The  cost  of  fixing  up  the  school  grounds  is 
a  very  small  fraction  of  additional  expense.  The 
added  beauty  of  appearance,  giving  to  the  building 
a  worthy  setting,  the  increase  in  utility  gained  by 
proper  arrangement  and  the  greater  attractiveness 
to  the  boy  or  girl  who  must  go  to  it  for  so  many 
days  out  of  the  year,  are  considerations  which  should 


AN   INVITING   HIGH   SCHOOL   WITH   AN   INVITING   SETTING 
East  Cleveland.  Ohio. 


A   SCHOOL   GARDEN,   DAVENPORT,   IOWA 

Photo  from  Davenport  City- Beautiful  Garden  Contest. 


SCHOOLS  AND  SCHOOL  GROUNDS 

make  an  appeal  to  every  group  of  persons  on  the 
School  Board  and  to  all  part  owners  in  the  school 
establishment. 

To  get  down  to  specific  recommendations  con- 
cerning school  ground  arrangement,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  following  principles  easily  understood 
should  be  followed  in  the  division  of  the  lot;  there 
should  be  a  public  portion  designed  to  set  off  the 
building.  This  can  be  done  with  a  simple  well- 
kept  lawn,  with  shrubbery  planting  and  flowers,  or 
often,  if  the  building  foundation  is  high,  with  terrac- 
ing. Entrances  should  be  direct.  Time  is  precious  for 
the  hurrying  scholar.  The  main  walks  may  be  eight 
to  ten  feet  wide  and  should  be  of  permanent  mate- 
rial. There  must  always  be  a  portion  devoted  to 
play  and  recreation.  This  is  an  important  part 
of  the  school  grounds,  as  it  is  the  most  intensively 
used.  There  should  be  a  separate  area  for  the 
play  of  the  boys  and  of  the  girls.  If  possible,  this 
play  area  should  not  extend  to  the  front  of  the 
building.  Games  of  basket  ball  and  volley  ball  are 
enjoyed  by  girls  as  well  as  boys,  and  these  may 
be  provided  for  if  space  permits.  School  play 
yards  are  often  equipped  with  apparatus,  such  as 
swings  and  bars.  When  this  equipment  is  in  use  it  is 
advisable  to  have  a  play  supervisor  in  attendance, 
and  to  lock  swings  and  take  down  bars  at  other 
times  than  at  play  hours  to  avoid  accidents.  If 
small  children  attend  the  school  they  had  best  be 

97 


] 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

given  an  area  by  themselves  with  swings  and  sand 
boxes  where  the  larger  children  will  not  disturb 
them.  Finally,  on  school  grounds  there  should  be 
a  portion  devoted  to  the  needs  of  service;  coal  in 
considerable  amount  and  other  supplies  must  be 
brought  in  from  time  to  time,  and  ashes  and  rub- 
bish taken  away.  This  area  may  be  small,  but  it 
is  necessary. 

The  Planting  of  School  Grounds. — By  means  of 
proper  planting  there  is  almost  universal  opportunity 
for  improvement.  The  planting  need  not  be  of  an  ex- 
pensive character.  Whatever  planting  is  done  must 
not  interfere  in  any  way  with  the  full  use  of  the 
various  parts  of  the  grounds.  Trees  and  shrubs 
should  be  grouped  where  their  shade  is  needed  or 
where  they  serve  to  enframe  the  building  from  the 
street,  never  in  a  position  to  be  in  the  way  of  play. 
Shrubs  should  be  grouped  at  the  street  entrances 
and  about  the  base  of  the  building,  but  not  in  front 
of  basement  windows.  They  may  form  a  running 
boundary  of  varied  height  about  the  sides  and  back 
of  the  school  grounds.  In  some  localities  schools 
have  planted  their  property  under  the  direction  of 
a  far-seeing  teacher,  the  pupils  carrying  out  the 
plan,  thereby  learning  something  of  the  practical 
side  of  planting,  and  the  value  of  created  civic 
beauty,  first  hand.  Surely  our  schools  should  be 
made  to  look  as  attractive  as  possible,  if  for  no 

98 


SCHOOLS  AND  SCHOOL  GROUNDS 

other  reason  than  to  keep  the  pupils  from  regarding 
them  as  barren  prisons. 

The  trees  useful  for  school  grounds  are  many, 
prominent  among  them  would  be  the  ash,  the  hard 
maple  and  the  arching  elm.  There  is  a  useful 
group  of  the  tall  growing  shrubs  or  small  trees  for 
boundary  planting,  among  these  would  be  the  stag- 
horn  sumac,  the  buckthorn  and  the  white  lilac.  Of 
the  shrubs  there  should  be  chosen  those  notable  for 
pleasing  flowering  qualities  especially  during  the 
spring  weather.  In  general,  the  planting  on  school 
grounds  should  be  of  a  naturalistic  quality,  and 
may  be  made  up  of  plants  taken  directly  from  the 
fields.  Hedges  are  useful  for  marking  divisions 
on  the  grounds,  and  giving  a  trim  appearance  be- 
side front  and  entrance  walks.  The  usefulness  of 
vines  about  and  on  the  building  should  not  be  for- 
gotten. 

School  Gardens. — The  school  garden  has  become 
a  prominent  factor  in  many  an  elementary  school 
of  to-day.  It  is  capable  of  immense  good  not  only 
in  giving  the  pupil  the  benefit  of  exercise  and  fresh 
air,  but  in  cultivating  in  him  the  quality  of  chivalry 
and  tenderness  for  dependent  things.  Young  people 
are  almost  invariably  fond  of  pets.  It  is  this  trait 
which  is  appealed  to  and  stimulated  by  sharing  in 
the  work  of  the  school  garden.  As  has  been  said,* 

*  Children's  Gardens,  American  Civic  Association  Pamphlet, 
p.  4. 

99 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

"It  is  not  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  vegetables  and 
flowers  that  gives  the  school  garden  the  right  to  be, 
not  alone  the  knowledge  acquired  of  plants  and 
their  environment;  it  is  both  of  these  and  training 
— the  training  of  the  powers  of  the  child."  And 
again,  in  testimony  of  the  benefits  derived  from 
school  garden  work  one  cannot  but  agree  with  the 
following:5  "Quick  discrimination  is  one  of  the 
pronounced  qualities  resulting  from  it.  Skill  with 
the  hands  is  necessarily  an  outcome.  .  .  .  Industry 
is  not  an  unimportant  result  which  comes  from 
school  garden  work.  The  idea  of  ownership  and 
the  rights  of  ownership,  which  come  from  the  pos- 
session of  a  garden,  induce  the  pupil  to  exercise  his 
ability  to  make  his  possession  as  good  or  better  than 
that  of  his  neighbor.  The  natural  result  of  this 
is  industry." 

The  school  garden  is  often  in  direct  connection 
with  the  school  or  it  may  be  on  a  vacant  lot  not 
far  off  to  which  the  class  go  to  work  under  the 
supervision  of  the  teacher  in  charge.  Exhibits  are 
commonly  held  at  the  climax  of  the  growing  season 
and  prizes  given  for  the  best  products  and  for  the 
best  appearing  garden.  The  interest  attached  to 
such  competitions  by  the  young  competitors  is  evi- 
dence of  their  value. 

In  some  communities  garden  clubs  are  formed 

'The  School  Garden,  Bulletin  218,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri- 
culture. 

IOO 


SCHOOLS  AND  SCHOOL '.GROUNDS 

by  separate  schools  for  summer  work,  the  name  of 
the  garden  club  being  on  display  in  a  prominent 
place  in  the  garden  of  the  youthful  member.  It  is 
considered  important  that  the  children  should  be 
allowed  to  do  all  of  the  work  on  their  gardens 
from  the  first  preparation  of  the  ground  to  the  final 
gathering  of  vegetables  and  flowers.  Supervision 
of  the  plats  by  the  teacher,  however,  is  necessary 
as  the  work  progresses.6 

The  School  as  a  Community  Center. — Mention 
should  be  made  of  the  praiseworthy  plan  of  open- 
ing school  grounds  for  the  play  of  children  after 
school  hours7  and  during  the  summer  months  in 
those  regions  of  the  city  where  places  of  recrea- 
tional character  are  scarce.  This  is  similar  to  the 
recent  movement  of  encouraging  the  opening  of 
school  buildings  on  certain  nights  of  the  week  for 
the  benefit  of  the  pupils  and  the  grown  people  of 
the  surrounding  neighborhood. 

Such  a  getting  together  means  in  many  a  family 
a  chance  for  recreation  and  the  fraternizing  of 
young  and  old  which  is  possible  in  no  other  way. 
Already  in  many  communities  the  school  house, 
formerly  dark,  is  illuminated  on  special  nights  for 
meetings  of  an  educational  or  social  nature.  Here 
clubs  of  pupils  meet,  and  evening  lectures  occur. 

*Cf.  Children's  Gardens  for  School  and  Home,  by  Louise 
Kline  Miller. 
7Cf.  par.  5,  p.  in. 

101 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

The  movement  spells  a  larger  purpose  and  an  even 
greater  influence  for  the  public  school.  A  word 
picture  of  this  movement's  aim  is  given  us  by  one 
interesting  speaker.8  "Our  school  buildings  ought 
to  be  centers  of  social  enterprise  and  cooperation; 
places  where  .  .  .  everything  shall  be  considered 
from  the  point  of  its  real  value — its  value  to  the 
community  and  to  the  world.  All  kinds  of  wonder- 
ful ideas  will  spring  from  the  free  soil  of  these 
centers.  Why  could  not  such  neighborhood  or- 
ganizations be  the  backers  and  promoters  of  art 
and  science  in  every  form?  Why  could  they  not 
be  as  powerful  in  their  spiritual  influence  and  prac- 
tical inventiveness  as  the  parish  church  was  in  the 
days  when  the  church  was  the  promoter  of  art 
and  science?" 

Summary. — Free  education  has  been  given  a 
regular  place  in  our  civic  life.  Large  sums  have  been 
expended  by  communities  upon  education.  It  be- 
hooves each  community  to  make  sure  that  what  is 
so  used  is  wisely  expended. 

Much  attention  has  been  given  of  late  to  the 
planning  of  school  buildings  to  render  them  effi- 
cient and  safe.  More  care  than  now  given,  is  due 
the  surroundings  of  the  school  building  to  render 
the  grounds  more  attractive  and  more  useful,  a 
worthier  setting  for  the  building  upon  them. 

*  The  School  House  as  a  Community  Center,  by  Margaret 
Woodrow  Wilson.  Paper.  Am.  Civic  Association.  March, 
1916. 

IO2 


SCHOOLS  AND  SCHOOL  GROUNDS 

School  gardens  are  carried  on  in  connection  with 
many  schools.  They  are  a  means  of  benefit  to  the 
pupil  in  both  a  physical  and  educative  way. 
Through  the  opening  of  school  grounds  for  play  and 
school  buildings  as  community  centers,  school  plants 
are  capable  of  serving  a  larger  purpose  than  ever 
before. 


CHAPTER  IX 

PLAYGROUNDS  AND  NEIGHBORHOOD  CENTERS 

'• 

THE  widespread  movement  for'the  establishment 
of  playgrounds  in  towns  and  cities  is  so  general 
to-day  and  of  such  proportions  that  its  importance 
cannot  but  be  recognized  as  something  significant 
even  by  the  casual  observer. 

Parks  and  playgrounds  at  first  sight  may  appear 
like  ornamental  frills  in  town  equipment,  but,  just 
as  parks,  aside  from  their  ornamental  value,  were 
seen  to  be  real  necessities,  so  playgrounds  are  neces- 
sities in  dealing  with  certain  phrases  of  civic  life. 

It  is  true  that  the  public  playground  administers 
primarily  to  the  needs  of  young  America,  but  the 
recreation  center  in  its  broad  sense,  as  we  shall  see, 
does  not  leave  the  elders  out  of  consideration. 
Dwellers  in  cities  find  in  it  opportunity  of  recrea- 
tion for  old  and  young.  Further  than  this,  the 
modern  playground,  particularly  in  the  large  city, 
forms  an  effective  means  of  welding  together  the 
heterogeneous  elements  which  go  to  make  up  the 
community. 

104 


PLAYGROUNDS— NEIGHBORHOOD   CENTERS 

The  Playground  Movement. — The  municipal 
playground  is  typical  of  present-day  methods  in 
dealing  with  social  problems.  Like  modern  medi- 
cine, its  effort  is  aimed  at  prevention  even  more 
strenuously  than  at  cure.  It  substitutes  for  a 
wasteful  and  demoralizing  philanthropy  one  that  is 
constructive;  it  says  that  those  who  would  receive 
gifts  must  do  .their  part  to  merit  them.  "The 
motto  'What  can  we  get  for  the  asking?'  has  given 
place  in  playground  work  to  'What  can  we  do  for 
ourselves  and  our  country  ?' '  As  a  symbol  of  this 
form  of  benefit  the  modern  municipal  playground 
stands  ready  to  serve  all  those  who  go  to  use  it. 
It  speaks  forth  the  old  saying,  "Heaven  helps  those 
who  help  themselves." 

The  ideal  of  working  for  the  prevention,  rather 
than  the  punishment  of  juvenile  crime  is  so  sane 
that  it  has  become  universally  recognized.  And 
this,  briefly,  is  why  the  public  playground  establish- 
ment has  received  the  backing  and  the  impetus  that 
it  has  in  all  parts  of  the  land.  The  town  and  city, 
to  put  it  briefly,  have  figured  out  that  spending 
money  to  insure  healthy  minds  and  bodies  in  its 
young  citizens  is  good  municipal  business. 

Historical. — Though  playgrounds  have  reached 
such  a  sure  abiding  place  in  our  town  and  city 
life,  the  movement  is  a  comparatively  recent  one. 
For  long  foreign  cities,  and  particularly  German 
cities,  had  made  provision  for  the  play  of  small 

105 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

children.  In  1886,  following  this  example,  there 
were  established  three  piles  of  yellow  sand  in  the 
yards  of  the  Children's  Mission,  Parmenter  Street 
Chapel  and  Warrenton  Street  Chapel,  Boston.  The 
next  year  there  were  ten  heaps  in  the  courts  of 
tenement  houses  and  elsewhere,  and  one  heap  in 
the  yard  of  a  school  house  to  be  used  in  connection 
with  a  vacation  school.1 

From  such  small  beginnings  the  work  grew.  The 
great  use  made  of  these  early  opportunities  led  to 
the  establishment  of  public  playgrounds  on  a  larger 
scale,  at  first  with  very  little  apparatus  for  play,  and 
later  with  abundant  equipment. 

The  first  city  to  follow  the  example  of  Boston 
was  Philadelphia,  in  which  in  1893,  two  summer 
playgrounds  were  started  by  interested  people.  In 
1895  New  York  began  to  busy  herself.  The  first 
summer  playground  in  Chicago  was  started  by  a 
conference  of  the  Associated  Charities  as  late  as 
the  year  1897.  Brooklyn,  Baltimore,  Cleveland, 
Minneapolis,  and  Denver  about  1900  became  inter- 
ested in  the  matter — the  Woman's  Club  in  most 
places  being  the  chief  promoter. 

Boston's  Municipal  Playground  System,  of  which 
there  were  about  thirty-eight  as  far  back  as  1911, 
cost  the  city  a  little  over  $3,500,000.     New  York 
City  is  said  to  have  the  most  costly  playground 
system  in  the  world,  her  playgrounds  have  prob- 
aCf.  American  Playgrounds,  by  E.  B.  Mero. 
1 06 


PLAYGROUNDS— NEIGHBORHOOD  CENTERS 

ably  cost  in  the  neighborhood  of  over  fifteen  million. 
Is  it  any  wonder  that  foreign  cities  have  stood 
aghast  at  these  expenditures?  Chicago  has  un- 
doubtedly the  most  nearly  ideal  system  of  munici- 
pal playgrounds  in  the  country  in  its  South  Park 
District.  On  these  large  sums  have  been  expended, 
justified  by  the  yearly  attendance  of  millions  of 
citizens,  young  and  old. 

The  Importance  of  Play. — The  value  of  play — 
its  necessity — needs  no  argument.  It  is  one  of  the 
primal  instincts  of  mankind.  All  children  and 
animals  play  as  naturally  as  they  breathe.  It  is 
the  expression  of  their  imagination  and  the  outlet 
of  their  energy.  As  young  people  grow  to  maturity 
the  need  of  play  is  no  less  a  necessary  factor  in 
their  lives.  The  main  difference  is  that  we  then 
call  the  necessary  thing  "recreation"  instead  of 
"play."  Alike  in  the  case  of  the  growing  young 
person  or  the  man,  it  is  "what  he  does  with  his 
hours  of  leisure  that  counts  for  good  or  ill.  It  is 
in  the  hours  of  play  that  the  most  abiding  lessons 
are  learned." 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  small  boy  is 
going  to  go  into  a  decline  because  he  has  not  a 
public  playground.  He  will  play  in  the  alley,  on 
the  street,  in  the  vacant  lot,  and  other  places.  But 
these  are  not  the  best  environment  for  play.  The 
city  playground  in  the  crowded  city  offers  a  place 
where  no  harm  can  be  done  to  surrounding  prop- 

107 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

erty,  where  the  youngster  is  in  no  one's  way,  and 
where  with  others,  he  will  find  out  for  himself  the 
abiding  merits  of  companionship,  generosity,  and 
the  principle  of  personal  rights.  The  advocates  of 
playgrounds  have  given  us  some  telling  slogans; 
among  them  are  "The  boy  without  a  playground 
'  is  father  to  the  man  without  a  job,"  and  "The  boy 
with  a  bad  playground  is  father  to  the  man  with  a 
job  that  might  better  have  been  left  undone." 

The  Term  Playground. — The  broad  scope  of  the 
municipal  playground  thus  hinted  at  is  admirably 
defined  by  E.  B.  Mero  in  the  following  paragraph 
on  "What  Makes  a  Playground." 

"When  we  speak  of  a  'public  playground'  it  is 
desirable  to  keep  in  mind  that  this  term  covers  a 
great  deal  more  than  is  told  by  a  literal  translation 
of  the  phrase.  A  modern  playground,  properly 
equipped  and  administered,  is  a  social  center — a 
place  for  recreation  and  physical  education  and  a 
true  gathering  point  for  neighborhood  activities. 
In  it  boys  and  girls  should  learn  early  by  actual 
experience  principles  of  right  living.  In  it  big 
brothers  and  sisters  should  cultivate  a  healthy  so- 
cial relationship.  In  it  fathers  and  mothers  should 
become  better  neighbors  and  more  worthy  citizens 
of  city,  state  and  country.  In  it  children  should 
do  a  great  deal  more  than  play,  important  as  play 
is  on  its  own  account." 

This  may  sound  visionary,  but  actual  experience 
1 08 


A  PLAY  FESTIVAL  IN   ONE  OF  HARTFORD'S    PARKS 

Thirty-five  Maypoles  in  Goodwin  Park,  Hartford,  Conn.     Phof  o   loaned 
by  Dr.  John  Nolen. 


THE  LITTLE   FOLKS'   CORNER  IN  ANOTHER  OF  HARTFORD'S  PARKS 

There  are  usually  a  hundred  here:   the  camera  man  happened  along 
just  at  lunch  time.     Photo  loaned  by  Dr.  John  Nolen. 


PLAYGROUNDS—NEIGHBORHOOD  CENTERS 

has  proved  its  practical  value;  has  demonstrated 
that  these  benefits  to  society  at  large  and  to  in- 
dividuals can  come  from  neighborhood  social  recrea- 
tion centers. 

Description  of  an  Ideal  Playground  System  for 
a  Town  or  City. — The  public  playground,  if  it  is 
to  be  considered  anything  more  than  merely  a  field 
supplied  with  apparatus  and  if  it  is  to  fulfill  its 
mission  in  a  complete  sense,  is  to  be  thought  of  both 
as  a  recreational  and  an  educational  center  for  the 
surrounding  community.  An  ideal  playground  sys- 
tem for  a  large  city  will  have  its  playgrounds 
distributed  at  intervals  of  about  a  mile  apart;  for 
it  has  been  found  that  the  average  effective  radius 
of  the  recreation  center  is  about  one-half  mile. 

In  the  ideal  playground  there  is  space  reserved 
for  little  tots,  with  sand  piles  and  swings,  with  a 
nearby  shelter  for  mothers  who  can  there  sit  and 
enjoy  the  company  of  other  mothers  as  they  watch 
the  play  of  their  children.  There  are  wading  pools 
for  the  young  boys  and  girls,  and  a  separate  play 
area  appropriately  equipped  for  those  of  more 
strenuous  age,  with  bathing  pools,  usable  on  sepa- 
rate days  by  boys  and  girls.  There  are  fields  for 
track  games,  basket  ball  and  baseball,  where  grown 
people  on  occasion  can  join  in  the  sports.  The  field 
may  perhaps  be  flooded  in  winter  for  skating. 

Groups  of  swinging  bars,  ladders,  and  slides,  are 
to  be  found  as  part  of  the  popular  pieces  of  play- 

109 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

ground  equipment.  Near  the  center  of  activity  and 
easily  entered  from  the  street  is  usually  located  a 
shelter  or  field  house.  It  is  important  to  have  the 
playground  so  arranged  that  the  shelter  housing  the 
entire  management  can  be  at  one  point.  Here,  be- 
sides locker  and  dressing  rooms,  is  sometimes  a 
branch  library,  reading  rooms,  and  an  extensive 
auditorium.  Fitted  in  this  way  the  playground 
center  becomes  a  real  neighborhood  center,  part  of 
which  at  least  is  usable  throughout  the  year. 

Supervision  of  the  Playground. — Each  municipal 
playground  system  should  be  under  the  supervision 
of  a  trained  director  and  each  playground  area, 
while  in  use,  should  have  an  attendant  in  charge. 
It  has  seemed  to  some,  a  contradiction  of  the  spirit 
of  the  public  playground  that  there  should  be  re- 
quired the  presence  of  a  paid  supervisor  while  play 
is  going  on,  but  it  has  been  found  that  supervision 
of  play  is  necessary  for  the  greatest  effectiveness 
of  any  recreation  center.  This  does  not  mean  that 
initiative  is  to  be  taken  from  the  users.  In  play 
under  direction  on  the  playground,  several  bene- 
fits exist;  there  results  a  minimum  of  abuse  to  the 
apparatus  used,  the  young  person  really  gets  more 
pleasure  from  the  playground  and  he  comes  gradu- 
ally to  understand  that  his  own  desires  are  not  to 
be  asserted  if  contrary  to  that  which  is  best  for 
the  greatest  number  of  his  fellows.  He  learns,  in 

no 


PLAYGROUNDS— NEIGHBORHOOD  CENTERS 

other  words,  something  of  his  place  in  the  com- 
munity. 

Planting. — One  of  the  objectional  qualities  con- 
nected with  the  average  playground  in  the  minds  of 
many  is  the  barrenness  and  unattractive  quality  of 
it.  This  is  true  in  a  good  many  cases,  but  it  need 
not  be  so.  Judicious  planting  will  be  found  to  relieve 
the  playground  of  this  defect,  making  it  at  once 
more  inviting  in  general  appearance  to  the  users, 
and  screening  the  apparatus-filled  area  from  the  view 
of  the  passersby. 

The  planting  may  well  be  a  shrubbery  screen 
along  the  edge,  with  trees  at  points  where  they 
will  not  be  in  the  way  of  games.  Thorny  plants 
should  be  avoided  where  young  people  are  liable 
to  brush  against  them.  As  in  the  school  yard, 
besides  aiding  appearances,  such  planting  will  be 
found  to  have  an  educational  value. 

Advice  to  the  Small  Community. — The  descrip- 
tion of  the  ideal  playground  carries  with  it  so 
elaborate  a  picture  as  possibly  to  make  it  seem 
unattainable  in  lesser  communities.  But  it  should 
be  remembered  that  a  small  beginning  is  far  better 
than  none.  Where  funds  are  not  available  for  a 
large  amount  of  apparatus  there  should  be  estab- 
lished at  once  what  the  locality  can  afford. 

Good  work  can  be  done  in  cooperation  with  local 
school  boards,  making  use  of  school  yards  after  the 

in 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

hours  of  school  are  over  and  for  summer  play- 
grounds.2 

A  Community  and  Neighborhood  Center. — The 
terms  "community  center"  and  "neighborhood 
center"  are  often  used  interchangeably,  but  there 
is  a  distinction  that  should  be  recognized  between 
them.  The  former  is  generally  used  in  describing 
the  focal  point  of  the  public  life  of  a  small  com- 
munity or  any  particular  subordinate  center  of  a 
large  city.  The  community  center  bears  the  same 
relation  to  the  local  business  and  residential  area 
round  about  it  that  the  civic  center  bears  to  the 
whole  town.  Here  shops  and  local  public  amuse- 
ments are  to  be  found,  and  branch  post  office,  and 
public  library  are  located. 

The  term  "neighborhood  center,"  on  the  other 
hand,  is  used  of  the  center  of  social  rather  than 
of  public  activities.  It  is  a  gathering  place  for  so- 
cial life  in  a  local  neighborhood.  The  modern 
municipal  playground  well  organized  and  ideally 
equipped  merges  into  the  neighborhood  center,  the 
description  of  the  one  answering  in  great  part  that 
of  the  other. 

Often  a  school  house  forms  the  seat  of  such  a 
center,  or  it  may  be  a  building  created  by  gift,  or 
by  the  community  or  it  may  be  in  the  city  play- 
ground itself.  In  the  ideal  neighborhood  center, 
besides  provision  for  recreation,  there  are  to  be 

*Cf.  par.  2,  p.  101. 

112 


PLAYGROUNDS— NEIGHBORHOOD  CENTERS 

found  facilities  for  public  gatherings.3  Here  town 
fathers  may  gather  to  discuss  politics,  here  elections 
may  be  held  and  town  conditions  discussed,  here 
boys  and  girls  clubs,  and  the  clubs  of  elders  may 
meet,  cooking  classes,  dramatic  performances,  and 
many  other  activities  may  be  carried  on  to  the  end 
of  bringing  together  the  people  of  the  neighbor- 
hood, and  the  creation  of  a  spirit  of  community 
loyalty. 

Summary. — Like  parks,  playgrounds  are  to  be 
regarded  not  as  frills,  but  as  necessities.  The  move- 
ment working  for  the  public  playground  is  a  true 
expression  of  present-day  constructive  philanthropy. 
It  is  a  modern  movement,  but  one  which  has  become 
widespread.  The  character  of  municipal  play- 
grounds varies,  but  the  aims  are  similar,  i.e.,  help- 
ing the  citizen,  particularly  the  young  growing 
citizen,  to  an  understanding  of  his  place  in  the 
community  through  association  with  his  fellows  on 
the  playground.  Play  supervision  is  a  necessary 
part  of  the  playground  programme. 

In  its  broad  scope  the  modern  playground  is  to 
be  regarded  as  a  social  center — a  place  for  recrea- 
tion and  a  gathering  point  of  neighborhood  activi- 
ties. The  neighborhood  center  is  parallel  in  part 
with  the  recreation  center,  serving,  however,  a 
somewhat  broader  function. 

*Vid.  Frontispiece.     Proctor  Memorial,  Peoria,  111. 


CHAPTER  X 

PROBLEMS  OF  SANITATION— WATER  SUPPLY 
AND  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL 

THE  health  of  the  community  was  once  looked 
upon  as  something  in  which  chance  played  the 
main  part.  With  modern  medical  science  gauging 
the  urban  pulse  we  have  come  to  know  that  chance 
plays  but  a  small  part  in  public  health.  The  present 
day  idea  is  that  the  community  is  healthful  or  un- 
healthful  because  of  the  existence  of  conditions 
over  which  science  has  very  distinct  and  direct 
control. 

No  longer  is  the  city  the  synonym  of  filth  and 
pollution  that  it  was  in  times  past.  The  best  brains 
have  been  employed  to  make  the  city  a  good  and 
a  safe  place  in  which  to  live.  The  modern  com- 
munity, too,  has  found  that  the  problem  of  health 
cannot  be  separated  from  the  problems  of  prosperity 
in  material  lines.  No  town  can  be  prosperous  in 
business  which  is  not  a  healthful  place  in  which 
to  live. 

Average  Attitude  Tozvards  Problems  of  Sanita- 
tion.— Despite  the  immense  importance  which  the 
problems  of  water  supply  and  sewage  disposal  bear 

114 


PROBLEMS  OF  SANITATION 

to  the  life  of  the  community,  most  citizens  take 
these  benefits  for  granted.  Few  citizens  realize 
that  modern  city  life  would  be  impossible  but  for 
the  science  that  has  solved  the  problem  of  bringing 
fresh  water  daily  into  every  home,  and  taking  out 
wastes  in  the  form  of  sewage. 

The  question  of  water  supply  and  sewage  dis- 
posal are  ordinarily  called  the  problems  of  sanita- 
tion. Modern  sanitation  is  one  of  the  foremost 
of  municipal  sciences.  Of  its  complexity  few 
people  dream.  The  network  of  pipes  and  sewer 
mains  underlying  each  street,  the  numerous  con- 
nections thereto,  the  stations  which  furnish  and 
pump  the  water,  as  well  as  the  complicated  plants 
which  have  to  do  with  final  disposal  of  sewage,  are 
things  which,  since  they  are  out  of  sight  are  out 
of  our  thought. 

Water  Supply. — "Next  to  the  air  we  breathe 
water  is  the  greatest  of  human  necessities."  In 
biblical,  and  later  times,  communities  were  de- 
pendent for  their  water  supply  upon  small  streams 
and  open  wells.  The  scourge  of  fire  and  pestilence 
was  needed  to  teach  the  city  the  necessity  of  better 
methods.  Though  the  Romans  did  much  to  de- 
velop water  supply  for  their  cities,  it  was  not  until 
the  nineteenth  century  that  municipal  water  prob- 
lems were  taken  up  in  earnest.1  The  modern 

JThe  Romans  first  took  up  the  problem  of  securing  pure 
water  in  large  amounts  at  a  distance,  for  the  city  of  Rome, 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

system  when  it  at  length  arrived  came  in  with  a 
rush  as  the  following  figures  will  show: 

In  1850  there  were  only  83  public  water  works  in  the 

U.S. 

In  1880  there  were  600. 
In  1910  there  were  nearly  5Ooo2. 

Two  paramount  questions  stand  out  in  considera- 
tion of  a  town's  water  supply — the  question  of 
quality  and  the  question  of  quantity,  the  first  has 
to  do  with  source,  and  the  second  with  amount. 
Where  the  question  of  drinkableness  can  be  an- 
swered in  the  affirmative,  a  big  question  has  been 
solved.  Absolutely  pure  water  is  hardly  possible, 
but  it  must  be  sufficiently  pure  to  be  no  longer 
harmful.  Besides  being  fit  to  use  it  must  be  fur- 
nished in  amount  sufficient  for  all  purposes. 

The  Sources  of  Water  Supply  Compared. — The 

and  it  is  noticeable  that  in  305  A.D.  some  fourteen  aqueducts, 
from  seven  to  sixty  miles  in  length,  brought  in  pure  water 
to  the  city  from  surrounding  hills.  In  1800  London's  water 
supply  consisted  of  a  few  miles  of  bored  logs  laid  end  to 
end.  In  Chicago  the  water  supply  in  1842  was  pumped  from 
Lake  Michigan  by  a  twenty-four  horse  power  steam  engine 
into  nine  and  one-fourth  miles  of  wooden  pipe  supplying  one 
thousand  hydrants.  These  pipes  consisted  of  cedar  logs 
14  in.  in  diameter  with  a  2  in.  by  3  in.  bore. 

3  Principles  and  Methods  of  Municipal  Administration,  by 
W.  B.  Munro,  p.  125. 

116 


PROBLEMS  OF  SANITATION 

most  important  available  sources  of  water  supply 
for  towns  and  cities  are : 

1.  Rivers. 

2.  Lakes. 

3.  Wells,  ground  water. 

4.  Impounded  water  sheds  (Reservoirs). 

The  practice  of  drawing  city  water  from  rivers 
and  streams  is  common.  But  cities  know  that 
water  taken  from  such  a  source  needs  special  treat- 
ment; otherwise  it  is  a  source  of  danger.  The  old 
saying  that  rivers  purify  themselves  every  seven 
miles  is  not  to  be  depended  upon.  Nor  is  the 
purity  of  water  to  be  determined  by  its  appearance. 
Water  of  muddy  appearance  may  be  far  safer  for 
drinking  purposes  than  water  which  appears  pure 
as  crystal.  In  this  connection  it  is  worth  noting 
that  water  in  a  stream  is  often  safer  when  the 
river  is  low  than  when  flowing  swiftly  in  freshet 
time.  Harmful  bacteria  tend  to  settle  in  the  quiet 
pools,  which,  when  the  river  is  high,  are  carried 
along  down  the  stream,  polluting  the  whole  cur- 
rent. It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  the  intake 
for  a  town's  water  supply  must  be  upstream  from 
the  sewage  outflow. 

In  getting  water  from  a  lake  into  which  the 
sewage  is  led,  it  is  necessary  to  go  far  out  for  the 
supply.  The  merit  of  a  lake  as  a  source  of  supply 
lies  in  its  even  quality  and  its  inexhaustiblcness. 

117 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

Frequently,  municipally,  drilled  wells  are  used 
to  supply  the  town  with  water.  By  this  method 
pure  water  can  be  secured  first  hand.  A  number 
of  wells  are  drilled  at  a  certain  point  and  the 
pumping  station  is  there  located ;  when  more  water 
is  needed  more  wells  are  drilled.  For  cities  of 
considerable  size  this  method  becomes  impossible, 
as  the  supply  of  water  obtainable  in  this  way  is 
limited.  The  system  is  expensive  of  installation, 
but  has  the  merit  of  furnishing  a  supply  which 
needs  little  subsequent  filtration. 

A  further  source  of  water  supply  for  commu- 
nities and  the  one  upon  which  large  cities  must 
usually  depend,  is  that  of  impounding  the  water 
furnished  by  the  springs  and  streams  of  a  certain 
region,  in  a  reservoir.  This  necessitates  sometimes 
the  buying  up  of  all  land  lying  on  a  water  shed, 
and  involves  much  expenditure  even  when  the  work 
consists  only  in  reservoir  construction.  Precau- 
tion must  be  taken  regarding  the  upkeep  of  the 
land  so  reserved  to  keep  the  reservoir  itself  free 
from  pollution.  Caution  rray  well  be  taken  to 
prevent  a  reservoir  situated  up  on  high  ground  from 
being  a  menace  to  the  town's  safety. 

Amount  of  Water  Supply  Necessary. — An  ade- 
quate amount  of  water  supply  is  estimated  at  about 
one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  gallons 
per  capita  per  day.3  The  figure  appears  large. 
*Cf.  Principles  of  Municipal  Administration,  by  W.  B. 
Munro.  Chap,  Water  Supply. 

118 


PROBLEMS  OF  SANITATION 

The  amount  named  is  made  use  of  in  the  following 
way :  about  ten  per  cent  is  used  for  public  purposes, 
twenty  to  forty  per  cent  for  industrial  purposes, 
about  twenty  per  cent  for  domestic  use,  and  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  is  lost  by  wasting  due  to  leak- 
age before  the  water  reaches  its  destination  or  to 
defective  plumbing  at  the  end  of  the  pipe. 

That  there  is  a  waste  in  purifying  all  of  the 
water  for  a  town's  use  when  but  a  fraction  is  used 
in  drinking  is  a  thought  which  must  occur  to  us. 
Paris  is  equipped  with  a  two-fold  system  of  drink- 
able and  nondrinkable  water.  The  danger,  how- 
ever, that  people  may  drink  from  the  wrong  pipe, 
and  the  expense  of  installing  a  dual  system  has  led 
American  municipalities  to  a  purification  of  all 
water,  despite  the  fact  that  there  is  need  that  but  a 
small  part  of  it  be  pure. 

Not  only  should  the  amount  of  water  supply  for 
a  town  be  greater  by  a  certain  per  cent  than  its 
actual  need,  but  in  addition  provision  must  be  made 
for  the  town's  growth. 

Communities  are  coming  more  and  more  to  use 
the  meter  system  in  place  of  the  "pay  by  the 
faucet"  system  for  water  charges.  The  former 
method  prevents  waste  and  seems  to  be  profitable. 
A  reasonable  minimum  rate  should  be  insured  the 
consumer.  Much  of  a  town's  beauty  of  appear- 
ance in  the  summertime  depends  upon  a  water 
supply  that  will  allow  of  its  frequent  use  by  the 

119 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

householder  in  lawn  and  plant  sprinkling,  without 
the  penalty  of  exorbitant  water  bills.  One  can 
cite  towns  whose  poor  appearance  in  the  summer 
time  is  due  to  the  fact  that  water  is  too  high  to 
"waste"  on  the  grass  and  the  flowers. 

Suggestions  in  Regard  to  the  Water  Question. — 
From  what  has  been  said  many  points  will  suggest 
themselves  which  can  be  applied  to  local  communi- 
ties. Too  great  care  cannot  be  given  to  a  pure  and 
abundant  supply  of  good  water.  The  "ever  lurking 
danger  at  the  faucet"  must  be  avoided  at  all  costs 
if  our  cities  are  to  be  healthful  communities. 
Make-shift  niters  are  not  to  be  depended  upon  to 
supply  the  household  with  pure  water  which  the 
town  itself  should  provide.  Money  spent  on  water 
supply  is  a  good  and  a  necessary  investment  for 
any  city.  The  best  expert  advice  is  economy  when 
it  comes  to  this  question.  Towns  closely  situated 
might  unite  in  securing  a  good  water  supply,  thus 
enabling  them  to  save  expense  in  cost  of  advice 
and  construction. 

To  consider  the  subject  from  the  side  of  esthetic 
improvement,  where  the  source  of  the  town's  water 
supply  is  lake  or  reservoir,  these  sites  may  be  made 
into  public  park  reservations,  adding  to  the  number 
of  city  park  areas,  and  insuring  to  the  immediate 
region  segregation  from  human  dwellings. 

Stand  pipes  might  easily  be  given  more  sugges- 
tion of  beauty.  Their  forms  suggest  dignity — their 

1 20 


PROBLEMS  OF  SANITATION 

site  grandeur.  Too  often  they  are  but  bare  riveted 
stacks.  Pumping  stations,  too,  could  be  made  more 
imposing  without  being  made  more  costly. 

Sewerage. — Up  to  within  quite  modern  times 
street  gutters  served  the  purpose  of  taking  off  sur- 
face water  and  house  waste,  but  filth,  contamina- 
tion, and  epidemics  of  disease  were  the  penalty  of 
such  measures.  It  has  been  for  the  modern  city 
to  solve  the  problem  of  getting  rid  of  the  wastes 
in  a  complete  and  effective  way. 

The  two  terms  "sewage"  and  "sewerage"  are 
not  synonymous.  The  former  is  used  of  the 
product  to  be  disposed  of,  the  latter  of  the  method 
of  disposal.  A  detailed  description  of  the  mains, 
their  character  and  location,  is  not  necessary  here, 
but  it  would  be  worth  while  noting  that  there  are 
two  distinct  systems  of  mains  in  use;  these  are 
what  are  called  separate  and  combined  systems. 
By  the  separate  system,  storm  water  and  sewage  are 
carried  in  separate  mains,  to  points  of  disposal;  by 
the  second,  both  are  carried  in  the  same  main.  The 
experience  of  cities  has  led  to  the  conclusion  that 
a  separate  system  is  better,  for,  although  storm 
water  theoretically  is  an  aid  in  periodically  flushing 
out  the  sewer,  the  pipes  of  a  combined  system  must 
be  so  large,  that  in  dry  weather  sufficient  flow  is 
not  sure  of  being  maintained  to  keep  the  mains  free 
from  deposit.  Then,  too,  sand,  leaves,  and  other 
rubbish  carried  into  the  mains  by  storm  water  add 

121 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

to  occasional  obstruction.  Another  argument 
against  the  combined  system  lies  in  the  increased 
capacity  necessary  at  the  disposal  plant. 

Methods  of  Sewage  Disposal  Compared. — Of  the 
various  methods  of  sewage  disposal  the  following 
may  be  named  as  the  systems  most  generally  in 
use:  (i)  Direct  discharge  into  streams  and  lakes— 
a  prodigal,  and  on  the  whole  a  selfish  method  of 
procedure  in  that  it  takes  the  easiest  and  cheapest 
method  regardless  of  towns  further  down  stream. 
(2)  Purification  of  sewage  by  settling  tanks  and 
filtration.  The  sewage  under  this  method  flows  into 
large  tanks  through  which  it  flows  slowly  allow- 
ing the  greater  part  of  suspended  matter  to  settle 
to  the  bottom,  precipitation  being  hastened  by 
chemicals,  it  then  passes  on  through  sand  and  gravel 
filters,  often  sprinkled  on,  the  purification  being 
augmented  by  aeration.  This  perhaps  is  the  method 
in  most  general  use.  (3)  Septic  tanks.  This 
method  is  carried  on  upon  the  principle  that  there 
are  certain  bacteria  which,  when  introduced  into 
the  sewage,  bring  about  the  decomposition  of 
harmful  bacteria.  This  method  for  an  entire  city 
requires  an  elaborate  system  of  installation.  The 
process  is  a  comparatively  slow  one  and,  except 
when  installed  on  a  large  scale  is  most  useful 
only  for  cities  of  moderate  size.  (4)  A  final 
method  of  sewage  disposal  which  may  be  mentioned 
is  that  of  outflow  over  land  allowing  the  sewage  to 

122 


PROBLEMS  OF  SANITATION 

purify  itself  by  contact  with  the  air  and  the  soil. 
This  method  called  "sewer  farming,"  necessitates 
the  use  of  larger  areas  of  land  than  most  cities  can 
spare  for  such  purposes.  In  Europe  it  is  often 
used  extensively. 

Summary. — There  exists  a  direct  relation  be- 
tween the  health  and  the  business  life  of  the  com- 
munity. Water  supply  and  sewage  disposal  are 
vital  questions  in  the  life  of  the  town  for  without 
their  proper  handling  urban  life  would  be  im- 
possible. 

The  sources  of  water  supply  for  cities  are:  (i) 
Rivers  and  streams;  (2)  Lakes;  (3)  Wells,  and 
(4)  Impounded  water  sheds. 

The  methods  of  sewage  disposal  may  be  named 
in  the  main  as  follows:  (i)  Direct  discharge  into 
streams  and  lakes;  (2)  Purification  by  settling  tanks 
and  filters;  (3)  Septic  tanks,  and  (4)  Outflow  over 
land.  The  choice  of  method  of  sewage  disposal 
as  of  water  supply  will  depend  upon  existing  local 
conditions. 


CHAPTER  XI 

PROBLEMS  OF  HEALTH,  COMFORT  AND  SAFETY 

BESIDES  the  matter  of  sanitation  there  are  other 
questions  which  concern  the  health,  comfort,  and 
the  safety  of  the  town  dweller.  The  matters  in- 
volved under  such  a  consideration  are  of  every-day 
concern.  That  some  of  them  seem  so  ordinary  as 
to  be  unromantic  and  uninteresting  does  not  detract 
from  their  importance. 

Air  and  Sunlight. — We  often  use  the  term  "free 
as  air."  We  think  of  air  as  limitless  and  of  un- 
questioned purity  and  of  sunlight  in  much  the  same 
way.  But  it  is  a  fact  that  in  towns  and  cities  air 
and  sunlight  are  very  precious  things.  It  is  hard 
to  believe  that  there  are  parts  of  large  cities 
where  pure  air  is  never  breathed,  and  into 
which  sunlight  never  penetrates,  even  at  high  noon. 
Gases,  smoke,  and  fumes  from  industrial  plants, 
and  dust  from  the  street,  all  contribute  toward 
rendering  the  air  in  cities  impure.  High  buildings, 
narrow  streets,  too  thickly  planted  trees,  and  im- 
proper housing  conditions  help  to  keep  out  precious 
sunlight.  To  secure  air  and  sunlight  the  city  is 

124 


PROBLEMS  OF  HEALTH 

often  forced  to  pay  a  high  price,  if  indeed  it  may 
secure  them  at  all. 

In  seeking  improvement  questions  must  be  an- 
swered by  proper  action;  for  example:  are  fac- 
tories and  industries  so  located  that  prevailing 
winds  carry  smoke  and  fumes  over  the  town?  Are 
structures  allowed  to  be  built  so  tall  that  air  and 
sunlight  are  kept  out?  Are  buildings  and  private 
houses  allowed  to  be  placed  so  closely  together  that 
air  and  sunshine  cannot  enter  in  amount  sufficient 
for  health? 

Food  Supply. — The  interdependence  between 
town  and  country  is  seen  most  plainly  in  the  matter 
of  food  supply.  Though  the  farmer  can  supply 
all  of  his  immediate  wants  from  the  acres  which 
he  works  as  his  farm,  the  city  dweller  must  depend 
for  practically  all  of  the  commodities  which  support 
life,  upon  the  world  outside. 

As  the  supply  of  these  commodities  must  be  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the  town  or  city,  the 
question  of  food  supply  becomes  of  increasing  im- 
portance as  the  town  grows.  Careless  methods  in 
handling  should  be  guarded  against,  a  good  quality 
of  food  stuffs  secured,  and  everything  possible  done 
to  insure  sanitary  storing.  Larger  cities,  because  of 
better  established  systems  and  food  regulations,  are 
frequently  not  as  great  offenders  as  the  smaller 
town  in  keeping  up  the  standard  of  cleanliness  and 
purity. 

125 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

The  public  has  at  last  awakened  to  the  necessity 
of  getting  pure  food.  "Let  the  purchaser  be- 
ware," was  the  well-nigh  universal  attitude  on  the 
dealer's  part  in  former  years.  Now  pure  food  acts 
have  made  it  hard  or  at  least  undesirable  to  de- 
ceive the  public.  Such  acts  have  assured  the  pur- 
chaser that  the  quality  of  food  is  as  advertised, 
and  municipal  inspection  has  put  a  penalty  upon 
the  use  of  short  measures  and  other  methods  of 
"taking  in"  the  buyer. 

As  to  municipal  inspection  and  the  control  of 
public  food  stuffs,  our  cities  in  America  have  not 
yet  progressed  to  the  point  attained  by  some  Euro- 
pean cities,  where  the  municipality  owns  its  own 
abattoir  requiring  that  all  meats  for  the  city  be 
furnished  from  this  source.  Much  might  be  said  in 
favor  of  the  establishment  of  well-run  and  well- 
inspected  municipal  markets,  where  the  consumer 
may  purchase  directly  from  the  producer  at  a  fair 
price  without  paying  a  toll  to  the  middleman,  who 
often  sets  the  price  at  will. 

Disposal  of  Garbage  and  Other  Wastes. — The 
disposal  of  wastes  in  the  form  of  garbage,  ashes 
and  other  material  no  longer  useful  to  the  house- 
hold, is  another  matter  which  concerns  the  health  of 
the  community.  Happily  in  most  of  our  cities,  the 
day  when  a  pig  might  be  kept  on  each  city  lot  as 
a  private  garbage  disposal  plant  is  gone,  and  even 

126 


PROBLEMS  OF  HEALTH 

chickens  are  looked  upon  askance  by  those  who 
have  in  hand  the  community's  health. 

Every  town  should  aspire  to  the  condition  of 
having  garbage,  ashes,  and  rubbish  collected  by  the 
city  at  regular  intervals.  Private  collectors  are 
often  efficient  in  making  collections,  but  private  resi- 
dents are  not  to  be  depended  upon  as  a  group  to 
see  to  it  that  these  matters  are  taken  care  of  when 
needed.  Garbage  should  be  collected  at  least  twice 
a  week  in  the  summer  time  and  once  a  week  in 
winter.  Where  the  municipality  undertakes  the 
collection  of  household  wastes,  such  work  may  be 
accomplished  in  various  ways.  The  municipality 
may  own  its  own  wagons  and  teams.  This  labor 
being  performed  by  private  collectors  using  their 
own  means  of  hauling,  under  contract  to  the  city. 
The  last-named  method  is  found  to  be  very  efficient 
as  it  brings  in  the  element  of  competition  which 
makes  for  efficiency  in  carrying  out  the  work.  Of 
course,  garbage  should  not  be  carried  through  the 
street  in  uncovered  wagons. 

Method  of  Handling  Garbage  at  the  House. — 
A  suggestion  for  improvement  may  be  given  con- 
cerning the  proper  method  of  keeping  garbage 
pending  the  arrival  of  the  collector.  Sheet-in. n 
cans  with  close  fitting  tops  to  keep  out  flies,  and 
securely  fastened  against  marauding  dogs  and  cats, 
are  much  better  than  open  top  barrels.  Wrapping 
up  the  waste  product  in  a  newspaper  before  con- 

127 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

signing  it  to  this  receptacle  will  go  a  long  way 
toward  keeping  the  can  in  good  condition,  and 
preventing  its  abuse  at  the  wagon  by  hammering. 
A  very  good  type  of  can  is  one  which  is  set  into 
a  concrete  well  so  that  its  top  is  flush  with  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  The  private  incinerator 
in  the  house  is  a  method  which  has  lately  come  into 
use  in  modern  houses,  where  its  cost  is  not  pro- 
hibitive: by  this  method  the  garbage  is  wrapped 
in  a  paper  and  dropped  into  a  slot  leading  to  the 
cellar  and  there  dried  and  burned. 

The  Value  of  Waste  Products. — Although 
waste  products  in  the  eyes  of  the  householder,  it 
has  been  found  that  considerable  value  still  remains 
in  garbage  and  in  ashes.  A  large  per  cent  of 
garbage  is  fat;  some  municipalities  have  derived 
considerable  revenue  by  rendering  it  and  making 
soap  and  other  products  therefrom.  As  much  as 
twenty  to  forty  per  cent  of  ashes  has  been  found 
to  consist  of  combustible  materials.  This,  when 
separated  from  the  dead  ash,  is  capable  of  use  for 
fuel  purposes  by  the  city. 

The  most  common  use  to  which  ashes  and  use- 
less rubbish  are  put  is  that  of  filling  in  low  ground. 
Such  land  may  be  turned  to  excellent  account  for 
public  use.  Garbage  and  other  material  which  is 
either  offensive  or  liable  to  settle  as  it  decays  should 
not  be  dumped  upon  the  ground  for  filling. 

128 


PROBLEMS  OF  HEALTH 

Our  American  households  are  proverbially  waste- 
ful. It  has  required  the  stress  of  war  to  teach 
many  what  a  salvage  of  such  articles  as  old  iron, 
paper,  rubber  and  so  on,  may  produce  in  dollars  and 
cents.  The  following  list  of  prices  offered  for  dif- 
ferent "junk"  is  illuminating: 

Rags 2C.  per  pound 

Mixed  papers 400.  per  100  pounds 

Folded  newspapers 500.  per  100  pounds 

Books  and  magazines 700.  per  100  pounds 

Rubber  boots  and  shoes 3/^c.  per  pound 

Automobile  tires 30.  per  pound 

Inner  tubes 8c.  per  pound 

Bottles 40.  per  dozen 

Garden  hose. J^c.  per  pound 

Copper,  brass,  and  aluminum i6c.  per  pound 

Lead,  zinc,  and  lead  foil 3^/2  to  4c.  per  pound 

Light  brass  and  plumbing  brass 7c.  per  pound 

Scrap  iron 5oc.  per  100  pounds 

Guarding  the  Health  of  the  People. — The  muni- 
cipality must  actively  guard  the  health  of  its 
citizens  against  disease  and  conditions  which 
harbor  its  existence  in  so  far  as  possible.  To  this 
end  each  town  elects,  or  has  appointed  for  the 
purpose,  a  group  of  citizens  known  as  a  Board  of 
Health,  endowed  for  special  occasion  with  large 
and  drastic  powers,  whose  duties  in  the  main  are 
as  follows : 

129 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

1.  Careful  and  systematic  inspection  of  the  general 

condition  of  Public  Health. 

2.  Keeping  a  record  of  results. 

3.  Recording  all   cases  of   infectious   or  contagious 

disease. 

4.  Putting  up  card  warnings  and  enforcing  quarantine. 

5.  Disinfecting  homes  free  of  charge. 

In  small  towns  the  personnel  of  such  a  board  is 
usually  made  up  of  local  physicians  with  one  or  two 
other  individuals  to  serve  as  executive  officers.  In 
larger  cities  a  sanitary  engineer  usually  has  the 
chief  responsibility  on  such  a  board.  Strange  as 
it  may  sound,  the  work  of  health  boards  involves 
much  that  the  physician  is  not  trained  for.  A  sug- 
gestion, since  the  remuneration  for  a  sanitary  en- 
gineer is  sometimes  above  the  small  town's  ability 
to  pay,  would  be  that  neighboring  communities 
unite  in  the  employment  of  a  well-trained  sanitary 
expert  who  would  head  the  work  of  the  board  in 
each.1 

Although  so  much  for  the  well  being  of  the 
town  depends  directly  upon  the  work  of  the  Board 
of  Health,  one  finds  that  a  disproportionately  small 
per  cent  of  its  annual  outlay  is  spent  by  the  average 
city  for  the  work  of  the  health  department.2 


1  Cf .  p.  120,  par.  2,  Cooperation  in  Water  Supply. 

'"New  York  City,"  it  is  said,  "which  leads  the  country  in 
the  generosity  of  its  expenditures  and  the  scope  of  its  health 
activities,  devotes  less  than  two  per  cent  of  its  annual  out- 
ISO 


PROBLEMS  OF  HEALTH 

Harrowing  authentic  instances  might  be  cited  to 
show  the  havoc  wrought  by  epidemics  where  care- 
less methods  of  handling  health  problems  have 
gone  on  unnoticed  and  reformation  has  begun  only 
after  a  terrible  lesson  has  been  learned.  One  health 
board,  after  half-heartedly  investigating  the  cause 
of  a  recent  typhoid  epidemic  in  one  of  our  mid- 
western  towns,  returned  the  report  that  "there 
didn't  seem  to  be  any."  Such  a  Board  is  a  menace 
to  the  community.  We  are  on  the  verge  of  an 
awakening  in  matters  of  public  health  administra- 
tion but  we  are  not  yet  ready  for  congratulations. 

Nuisances  Affecting  Health  and  Their  Control. — 
In  every  community  there  are  certain  unpleasant 
things  which  we  term  nuisances.  The  more  op- 
timistic among  us  try  to  overlook  them.  They  are 
like  weeds  springing  up  when  the  citizenship  is  off 
its  guard.  They  arise  when  an  individual  or  set 
of  individuals  put  private  interest  ahead  of  the 
public  welfare.  These  anoyances  are  of  two  kinds, 
those  affecting  comfort  and  health  and  those  affect- 
ing the  community's  appearance.  Sometimes  they 
affect  both.  The  latter  group  we  shall  deal  with 
in  the  next  chapter. 

Some  of  the  nuisances  affecting  health  are  so 

lay  to  health  work  as  compared  with  approximately  5  per 
cent  for  fire  protection,  9  per  cent  for  police,  and  17  per 
cent  for  education."  American  City  Government.  Chas.  A. 
Beard,  p.  263. 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

subtle  that  it  is  only  the  prolonged  endurance  of 
them  that  injures  the  health  of  the  citizen,  as  in  the 
case  of  smoke  and  noise.  At  length  they  call  for 
suppression  as  directly  endangering  the  health  of 
those  concerned. 

In  our  own  country  the  charters  of  towns  and 
cities  tend  to  limit  local  powers.  Sincere  effort  to 
eradicate  certain  nuisances  is  often  handicapped  by 
existing  laws.  In  matters  where  public  health  is 
affected,  the  law  is  much  quicker  to  come  to  the 
relief  of  the  citizen  than  where  the  appearance  of 
the  town  is  concerned.  But  light  is  breaking,  and 
we  have  reason  to  hope  that  local  government  may 
soon  have  a  free  hand  to  deal  with  both  classes  of 
annoyances  as  it  sees  fit.3 

Smoke  and  Fumes. — Large  cities  and  heavy  at- 
mosphere have  for  a  long  time  been  associated  to- 
gether in  our  minds  and  with  justification.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  continued  breathing  of  smoke  and 
fumes  from  furnaces  and  industrial  plants  is  detri- 
mental to  health,  and  that  smoke  itself  is  a  de- 
stroyer of  architectural  beauty  and  a  damager  of 
goods  exposed  for  sale.  Effort  has  been  made  in 
many  communities  for  the  abatement  of  the  smoke 
nuisance  with  varied  success.  Many  smoke  or- 
dinances are  ineffective  in  being  too  mild  and  others 
in  being  too  drastic  to  insure  their  enforcement. 
A  number  of  cities  render  negligible  the  efforts  of 
*  City  Planning  and  the  Courts,  by  R.  E.  Cushman.  Paper. 
132 


PROBLEMS  OF  HEALTH 

local  residents  and  plants  by  excepting  the  smoke 
emitted  by  locomotives. 

The  equipment  of  residences  and  office  buildings 
with  the  best  grade  of  smoke  consumers  has  been 
recommended  as  an  effective  means  for  doing  away 
with  the  smoke  evil,  but  good  authority  says  that 
smoke  prevention  does  not  necessarily  mean  the 
use  of  a  smoke  consumer.  An  equally  effective 
recommendation  is  that  of  education  of  the  public 
in  the  proper  manner  of  burning  coal.  Keeping  in 
mind  the  axiom  that  all  smoke  is  waste,  will  help 
many  to  a  realization  that  it  is  to  their  advantage 
to  be  careful  in  the  handling  of  fires. 

In  manufacturing  communities  plants  should  be 
located,  so  far  as  feasible,  on  the  lee,  not  on  the 
windward  side  of  the  town.  If  this  recommenda- 
tion were  followed,  the  smoke  nuisance  would  be 
lessened  in  many  communities.4 

Winds,  Dust  and  Street  Dirt. — Not  a  great  many 
towns  and  cities  can  be  classed  as  windy  cities, 
but  occasionally  strong  winds  constitute  a  real 
nuisance  and  a  menace  to  health  partly  because  of 
the  dust  they  carry.  Where  the  wind  is  extremely 
noticeable,  the  fact  is  sometimes  due  to  the  direc- 
tion in  which  streets  are  laid  out.  Thorough- 
fares are  more  comfortable  for  travel  if  located  so 
that  they  do  not  get  the  full  force  of  prevailing 

4Cf.  American   Municipal,  Progress,   by    Charles    Zueblin, 
p.  84. 

133 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

winds.  High  buildings  often  add  to  the  bad  con- 
ditions, directing  the  wind  like  a  funnel. 

Too  much  cannot  be  said  for  regular  street 
cleaning  by  sweeping  or  flushing.  Fortunately, 
most  cities  do  not  now  need  such  advice.  Keeping 
streets  clean  has  become  a  movement  which  has  been 
properly  followed  by  cities  from  coast  to  coast,  and 
one  of  great  good  from  the  point  of  appearance  and 
public  health  as  well.  Modern  pavements  of  even 
surface  render  it  a  much  easier  task  than  formerly  to 
clean  streets.  New  York  City  was  the  leader  in  or- 
ganized street  cleaning.  The  history  of  the  work  and 
organization  of  the  "white  wings"  brigade  in  that 
city  forms  an  interesting  paragraph  in  the  history 
of  the  progress  of  modern  cities.5 

Unnecessary  Noise. — So  accustomed  have  we  be- 
come to  noise  that  we  are  not  apt  to  realize  that 
much  of  it  is  entirely  preventable.  The  clanging 
of  street  car  bells  at  all  times,  the  shouting  of 
newsboys  and  venders,  and  the  tooting  of  train 
whistles  are  a  few  of  the  things  which  the  modern 
city  is  coming  to  regard  as  nuisances. 

That  continued  noise  is  detrimental  to  the  well 
being  of  nervous  persons  and  a  retarding  agency 
to  convalescents,  is  indisputable.  Already  cities 
have  established  zones  of  quiet  about  hospitals 
which  passing  traffic  must  respect.  In  the  resi- 

8  Ref .  The  Improvement  of  Towns  and  Cities,  by  C.  M. 
Robinson,  p.  47. 

134 


PROBLEMS  OF  HEALTH 

dential  sections  of  many  cities,  and  frequently  in 
the  business  districts  unnecessary  noise  is  sup- 
pressed by  ordinance.  Armed  with  patience,  per- 
sistence, and  courtesy,  and  supported  by  public 
opinion  aroused  perhaps  by  a  friendly  newspaper, 
any  one  person  or  organization  may  do  a  great  deal 
in  bringing  about  improvement  in  this  matter.6 

Bad  Odors. — Bad  odors  come  from  causes  so 
obvious  and  easily  corrected  that  they  do  not  or- 
dinarily form  a  serious  problem  in  the  average 
community.  Their  offensiveness  is  apt  to  react 
upon  the  offender  as  well  as  the  public.  Such 
nuisances  are  usually  temporary  annoyances  in  the 
modern  city,  due  to  local  disobedience  of  rules  laid 
down,  or  to  derangement  in  the  mechanical  equip- 
ment of  a  particular  part.  At  times,  however,  their 
continuation  demands  correction. 

Crude  and  unsanitary  methods  of  garbage  dis- 
posal, defective  plumbing,  the  use  of  small  streams 
within  the  town  for  the  discharge  of  household  or 
industrial  wastes,  the  unpleasant  proximity  of  in- 
dustrial plants  such  as  glue  or  paint  factories, 
abattoirs,  and  tanneries  are  some  of  the  sources  of 
annoyance  which  may  be  named.  As  with  other 
nuisances,  tact  and  perseverance  are  the  watchword 
in  bringing  about  improvement. 

The  Fly  Crusade. — The  most  pervasive  and  per- 
nicious among  the  pests  of  the  modern  city  is  the 
f  Cf.  below,  par.  I,  p.  222. 

135 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

house  fly.  The  danger  to  health  from  this  creature 
is  just  beginning  to  be  appreciated.  The  fly  is  one 
of  the  most  efficient  of  all  the  carriers  of  disease. 
By  the  former  generation  this  creature  was  mildly 
accepted  as  a  nuisance  which  came  with  warm 
weather,  to  be  borne  with  patience  because  un- 
avoidable. The  fly  has  been  thought  of  largely  as 
a  pest  which  returns  in  numbers  each  season  from 
an  unknown  land,  a  good  deal  as  do  the  migratory 
birds.  Now  it  is  known  that  the  origin  of  the  house 
fly  is  quite  local,  that  he  seldom  flies  a  great  dis- 
tance from  the  location  where  he  hatched  out,  and 
that,  therefore,  if  the  town  exercises  care  in  his 
extermination,  there  will  result  a  comparatively 
flyless  season  that  year  and  the  seasons  following. 
The  surest  means  of  exterminating  the  fly  is  to 
do  away  with  his  breeding  places.  The  slogan 
"swat  the  fly"  indicates  what,  until  lately,  has  been 
the  character  of  the  crusade  against  him.  Fly 
swatting  may  be  a  diverting  exercise,  and  effective 
in  ridding  the  house  of  captive  flies,  but  it  does 
no*  go  far  in  ridding  a  community  of  them.  Flies 
breed  largely  in  filth,  and  especially  in  standing 
piles  of  stable  waste.  By  doing  away  with  such 
places  the  pest  is  sure  to  be  materially  lessened. 
One  cure  is  that  of  requiring  all  stable  manure  to 
be  cleaned  up  and  hauled  outside  the  city  limits 
once  a  week.  For  temporary  defense,  a  generous 

136 


PROBLEMS  OF  HEALTH 

solution  of  borax  sprinkled  on  the  pile  is  effective  in 
keeping  eggs  from  hatching. 

Other  Nuisances. — It  is  not  possible  to  consider 
every  one  of  the  nuisances  to  which  the  town  is 
heir.  A  list  of  them  would  include  a  varied  as- 
sortment, from  mice  in  the  pantry  and  rats  in  the 
cellar,  to  such  annoyances  as  low  hanging  branches 
of  trees  along  the  sidewalk,  and  a  hundred  other 
things,  the  correction  of  which  would  mean  a  com- 
munity with  steadier  nerves  and  sweeter  tempers. 
Discomforts  easily  regulated  and  suppressed  are 
often  those  of  widest  spread.  To  enter  town  im- 
provement through  the  humble  door  of  righting 
these  ordinary  unpleasantnesses  would  be  effort  not 
spent  in  vain. 

Police  Protection. — Closely  allied  to  the  subject 
of  comfort  and  safety  is  the  matter  of  police  and 
fire  protection.  A  very  large  proportion  of  the 
city's  budget  goes  toward  these  ends. 

No  argument  is  needed  to  convince  us  of  the 
importance  of  police  protection;  it  has  become  as 
much  a  part  of  the  city's  administrative  duty  as 
that  of  water  supply.  Writes  Charles  Zueblin: 
"A  thoroughly  satisfactory  police  service  can  only 
follow  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  people  to  have 
the  law  enforced  and  a  willingness  to  pay  for 
talent,  as  well  as  physique  and  character."7 

In  the  enforcement  of  the  law  the  policeman 

1  American  Municipal  Progress,  p.  136,  by  Chas.  Zueblin. 
137 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

and  the  citizen  are  both  presumed  to  be  human. 
In  Toledo  and  Cleveland,  a  golden  rule  policy  has 
been  tried  out  with  many  good  results;  the  policy 
having  to  do  with  curbing  the  personal  enmity 
sometimes  evident  on  the  part  of  the  man  in  uni- 
form against  all  suspects. 

Fire  Protection. — Few  persons  realize  the  enor- 
mity of  fire  waste  in  our  country.  We  are 
careless  in  regard  to  fires  as  the  following  para- 
graph shows: 

"If  all  the  buildings  burned  in  the  United  States 
in  any  single  year  were  placed  side  by  side  they 
would  form  an  avenue  of  desolation  stretching  all 
the  way  from  New  York  to  Chicago.  At  every 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  some  one  would  have 
been  found  burned  to  death." 

In  thirteen  prominent  cities  of  Europe  with  a 
total  population  of  little  over  eight  million,  the 
total  fire  loss  in  1910  was  a  little  over  one  million 
dollars,  while  in  five  large  American  cities  of  ap- 
proximately the  same  total  population  the  fire  loss 
for  the  same  year  was  fifteen  million  dollars. 

The  discrepancy  is  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that 
more  of  our  buildings  are  of  wood  construction 
than  in  the  continental  cities,  but  in  the  main  it  is 
to  be  laid  to  carelessness.  In  European  cities  rigid 
rules  are  laid  down  as  to  building  materials  to 
render  them  fireproof  as  far  as  can  be  done,  and 
when  fires  do  occur  a  rigid  investigation  follows, 

138 


A  SIGN   JUST  OUTSIDE   PARK   PROPERTY   BUT  DEFACING  IT 

We  can  only  gasp  and  exclaim,  "The  cheek  of  it!" 


THE    KIND   OF    SIGN   WE   ALL   BELIEVE   IN 

The  public  should  do  its  best  to  conform  to  the  request. 


PROBLEMS  OF  HEALTH 

after  the  fashion  of  an  inquest,  to  determine  where 
the  responsibility  lies,  and  to  penalize  the  offender. 

Safety  Commissions  and  the  Safety  First  Move- 
ment.— Much  of  the  injury  and  loss  of  life  that 
takes  place  in  our  communities  is  preventable.8 

To  protect  the  public,  numbers  of  Safety  Com- 
missions have  been  organized  whose  duties  are  to 
show  the  public  where  danger  lies,  and  to  see  that 
needed  signs  of  warning  are  put  up  where  they 
are  needed. 

Stimulated  by  thought  along  lines  of  conserva- 
tion, a  movement  known  as  the  "Safety  First 
Movement"  was  inaugurated  in  1915.  An  organ- 
ization called  the  "Safety  First  Federation  of 
America"  with  headquarters  in  New  York  City, 
arose  from  this  movement.  The  scope  of  its  work 
is  boundless,  and  has  in  it  a  universal  appeal.  It 
issues  warnings  to  school  children  to  be  careful  in 
crossing  busy  thoroughfares  and  instructs  them  as 
to  how  to  make  the  crossing.  It  cautions  house- 
keepers not  to  allow  an  accumulation  of  sweepings 
and  rubbish  under  the  cellar  stairs.  It  suggests 
measures  of  caution  to  heads  of  factories  for  the 
safeguarding  of  employees,  and  countless  other 
things  has  it  accomplished.  Its  simple  motto, 
A.  B.  C.  (Always  Be  Careful),  adopted  by  railroad 

*  In  1913  in  New  York  City,  trolleys  killed  108,  and  wagons 
170  persons.  The  total  of  those  killed  by  motors  or  in- 
jured to  the  extent  that  they  required  medical  attention 
was  1485. 

139 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

systems  for  trainmen  and  passengers,  has  probably 
been  instrumental  in  saving  thousands  of  lives. 

Summary. — In  all  communities  the  importance 
of  securing  air,  light,  and  a  good  food  supply  must 
be  recognized,  as  well  as  the  proper  disposal  of 
minor  waste  products.  There  are  also  certain 
nuisances  affecting  health  to  which  attention  should 
be  given  with  the  idea  of  bettering  conditions. 

Directly  connected  with  comfort  and  safety  are 
considerations  of  police  and  fire  protection.  The 
surest  protection  lies  in  the  hands  of  the  public 
itself.  The  Safety  First  Movement  has  done  and 
is  doing  much  to  safeguard  against  the  danger  of 
negligence. 


CHAPTER  XII 

CIVIC  ART 

THE  term  Civic  Art  has  been  a  good  deal  mis- 
understood. It  has  suffered  from  those  who  have 
seen  in  it  only  the  word  "Art,"  and  it  has  been 
regarded  with  suspicion  by  conservative  persons  to 
whose  minds  it  has  spelled  only  misspent  effort. 

The  situation  seems  to  be  something  like  the 
following:  Says  the  esthetic  enthusiast,  "Come,  let 
us  ornament  every  nook  and  corner  of  our  town; 
above  all  things  we  must  have  beauty!"  Says  the 
person  of  opposite  turn:  "We  do  not  want  Civic 
Art;  it  is  only  for  the  millionaire  suburb.  Let  us 
spend  our  money  upon  what  is  useful !"  The  truth 
is  that  each  is  wrongly  minded  in  regard  to  what 
Civic  Art  really  is,  and  how  it  should  be  applied. 

A  Definition  of  Civic  Art. — A  definition  of 
architecture  has  sometimes  been  given  as  "Build- 
ing what  is  necessary  in  as  beautiful  a  way  as 
possible."  Likewise  a  definition  of  civic  art  might 
be  given  as  "Making  what  is  necessary  in  the  com- 

141 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

munity  in  as  beautiful  a  way  as  possible/*     To 
quote  from  one  good  authority:1 

Civic  art  is  not  a  fad.  It  is  not  merely  a  bit  of 
estheticism.  ...  As  an  art  which  exists  not  for  its 
own  sake,  but  mainly  for  the  good  of  the  community, 
first  for  the  doing  of  the  thing  and  then  for  the  way 
of  doing  it,  there  can  be  only  one  successful  Civic 
Art.  This  will  be  one  which  joins  utility  with  beauty. 
Cities  are  not  made  to  be  looked  at  but  to  be  lived  in ; 
and  if  in  the  decoration  of  them  there  be  any  forget- 
fulness  of  that,  no  successful  Civic  Art  will  follow 
and  the  effort  will  defeat  itself. 

With  this  as  a  definition,  let  us  consider  the  ways 
in  which  Civic  Art  may  be  applied  to  towns  and 
cities. 

The  development  of  art  in  any  country  corre- 
sponds to  the  degree  of  its  civilization.  Retrogres- 
sion in  culture  is  marked  by  a  decadence  in  art, 
as  exhibited  in  the  crude  art  of  the  Saxons  after 
the  departure  of  the  Romans  from  English  soil. 
"Art  is  the  expression  of  order  in  human  thought 
and  feeling."2  So  Civic  Art  is  the  outward  ex- 
pression of  an  inner  order  in  civil  affairs.  Given 
opportunity  to  be  expressed  in  the  aspect  of  the 
city,  it  exerts  a  direct  influence  for  order  in  the 

1  Modern  Civic  Art,  by  C.  M.  Robinson,  pp.  28-29. 
*  The  Theory  of  Pure  Design,  by  Dr.  D.  W.  Ross,  Harvard 
University. 

142 


CIVIC  ART 

minds  of  the  citizens.  In  this  fact  lies  the  real 
justification  of  attention  to  Civic  Art. 

The  Scope  of  Civic  Art. — The  products  of  Civic 
Art  hold  places  in  all  parts  of  the  city.  There  are 
of  course  varying  degrees  in  which  beauty  may  be 
applied  to  objects,  depending  upon  their  place  and 
function.  There  are  those  in  which  beauty  of  line 
must  form  a  very  minor  part  of  make  up,  and  there 
are  those  whose  chief  function  is  adornment. 

A  sharp  line  of  distinction  between  that  which  is 
useful  and  what  is  of  pleasing  appearance  need  not 
be  drawn.  The  objects  of  civic  art  may  lie  in  both 
groups,  including  things  which  have  to  do  with  the 
every-day  equipment  of  the  town  and  those  of 
more  than  ordinary  significance  in  civic  beautifi- 
cation. 

Civic  Art  is  twofold  in  its  scope.  Not  only 
does  it  have  to  do  with  the  creation  of  objects,  but 
it  extends  to  corrective  measures  as  well.  Indeed 
a  proper  consideration  of  it  demands  that  these 
corrective  measures  be  the  first  considered.  They 
form  an  important  group.  Corresponding  to  the 
nuisances  affecting  health  there  exist  also  nuisances 
affecting  the  appearance  of  the  community.  It  will 
be  our  aim  first  to  consider  the  corrective  measures 
of  Civic  Art  and  thereafter  its  created  products. 

Billboards  and  Advertisements. — In  the  matter 
of  signs  and  billboards,  the  town  has  a  serious  prob- 
lem conf xonting  it  because  the  offense  is  so  general. 

*43 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

It  is  doubtful  whether  any  other  vice  of  town  ugli- 
ness is  so  widespread,  and  whether  greater  im- 
provement can  be  secured  in  any  other  way  for  the 
amount  of  energy  expended.  The  case  against  the 
billboard  is  well  summed  up  as  follows:3 

"Nearly  all  people  endeavor  according  to  their  lights 
to  protect  their  homes  against  ugliness  within.  In 
proportion  as  the  community  is  more  numerous  than 
a  household  it  is  important  to  protect  it,  as  far  as 
possible,  against  ugliness  without,  in  its  streets  and 
public  places.  We  are  now,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
protected  against  things  that  offend  all  the  senses  ex- 
cepting that  of  sight  alone ;  yet  this  is  in  many  respects 
more  important  than  the  others,  for  ugliness  is  an 
offense  against  the  mind,  and  has  a  subtle,  but  very 
important  effect  on  popular  education  and  happiness. 
Billboards,  made  in  no  sense  for  public,  but  entirely 
for  private  gain,  are  thrust  upon  the  view  of  as  large 
a  part  of  the  public  as  possible,  and  are  perhaps  less 
necessary,  less  justifiable  and  more  easily  mitigated 
or  suppressed  altogether  than  any  of  the  things  that 
disfigure  our  open  spaces.  As  time  goes  on  it  will 
become  clear  that  private  persons  have  no  right  to 
inflict  what  they  please  on  the  vision  of  the  community, 
nor  to  expect  the  community  to  endure  it.  As  bill- 
boards are  made  to  exploit  the  public  it  is  no  more 
than  just  that  at  least  they  should  be  taxed  for  public 
advantage  and  that  their  appearance  should  be  regu- 
lated by  public  officials." 

8  Quoted  from  a  report  of  Proposed  Policies  of  the  Ameri- 
can Society  of  Landscape  Architects,  February,  1916. 

144 


CIVIC  ART 

The  status  of  the  billboard  question  is  thus  men- 
tioned by  the  same  source: 

"Out-of-door  advertising  is  regulated  and  taxed 
in  Germany,  France,  and  Buenos  Ayres,  and  it  is 
taxed  in  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

"In  Pennsylvania  the  Acts  of  June  8,  1881,  and 
March  10,  1903,  forbid  under  penalty  of  fine  or  im- 
prisonment the  placing  of  advertising  signs  on  State 
property  or  on  private  property  without  the  owners' 
consent. 

"In  Milwaukee  an  ordinance  exists  regulating  bill- 
boards on  grounds  of  safety  from  fire  and  falling, 
and  forbidding  advertisements  on  public  streets  or 
structures. 

"Ordinances  regulating  billboards  have  been  sus- 
tained in  Texas  and  Missouri. 

"Under  a  decision  in  the  case  of  Commonwealth  vs. 
Boston  Advertising  Co.,  188  Mass.  348,  billboards 
could  not  be  restricted  on  grounds  of  unsightliness. 

"Billboards  can  be  controlled  by  existing  legislation 
principally  on  grounds  of  trespass  and  danger  from 
fire  or  falling,  also  of  advertising  alcoholic  drinks  or 
inciting  to  vice  and  crime.  But  the  only  way  of  reach- 
ing the  real  causes  of  their  unpopularity  will  be 
through  constitutional  amendments  enabling  them  to 
be  regulated  under  the  police  power  on  the  ground  of 
injury  to  amenity  or  pleasing  quality,  comfort  and 
livableness  of  a  place  and  consequently  to  its  real  estate 
value." 

145 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

In  foreign  cities,  largely  through  the  influence  of 
societies  of  artists,  the  public  advertisement  has  a 
good  deal  more  artistic  merit  than  that  commonly 
seen  in  our  country.  But  for  our  encouragement 
it  can  be  said  that  our  advertisement  as  a  type  is 
gradually  assuming  a  quality  which  is  less  of  a 
shout  and  more  of  an  appeal,  through  artistic, 
studied  line,  and  harmonious  color. 

Shop  Signs. — Signs  displayed  above  shop  and 
store  fronts  do  much  to  render  the  effect  of  good 
architecture  nil.  Wise  regulation  would  be  to 
insist  that  the  size  and  appearance  of  firm  names 
placed  upon  store  buildings  be  given  a  character 
compatible  with  the  architectural  lines  of  the  build- 
ing upon  which  they  are  shown.  We  should  be 
allowed  the  privilege  of  seeing  the  building  before 
we  see  the  sign. 

In  the  matter  of  hanging  signs  displayed  over 
sidewalks,  the  city  has  a  field  for  a  vigorous  cam- 
paign. St.  Louis  has  ruled  that  no  sign  shall  swing 
further  than  three  feet  from  a  building.  The  effect 
is  distinctly  helpful  to  the  whole  appearance  of 
the  downtown  portion  of  the  city  and,  in  the  present 
stage  of  improvement  legislation  in  this  line,  in- 
dividual. In  order  to  help  the  appearance  of  open- 
ness and  width  in  the  street,  and  in  part  for  greater 
safety,  some  cities  rule  that  signs  projecting  over 
the  sidewalk  shall  be  swung  back  against  the 
building  during  the  day.  The  illuminated  electric 

146 


A   GOOD  METHOD  OF   HANDLING   POLES  AND   WIRES 

By  stringing  them  on  poles  along  rear  property  lines,  the  appearance  of  the 
street  is  greatly  benefited. 


A   MONUMENT  BEAUTIFUL   IN  APPEARANCE  AND   SETTING 

The  Francis  Parkman  monument  in  one  of  Boston's  Parks. 


CIVIC  ART 

sign  over  the  sidewalk  and  even  roof  electric  signs 
have  at  night  a  gay  quality  which  one  beholds  with 
some  pleasure,  as  suggestive  of  the  gayety  of  cities. 
However,  the  roof  sign,  in  the  effort  to  captivate 
the  attention  with  chariot  races,  and  incandescent 
eagles  with  moving  wings,  often  cause  us  to  wonder 
to  what  realm  municipal  dignity  has  departed.  The 
electric  roof  sign  by  night  and  day  offends  much 
oftener  than  it  pleases. 

Overhead  Wires  and  Poles. — So  common  has 
been  the  practice  of  disfiguring  streets  with  wires 
and  poles  that  few  citizens  have  stopped  to  consider 
that  such  a  procedure  is  a  violation  of  public  right 
by  private  interest.  That  the  telegraph  and  tele- 
phone are  necessities  of  modern  existence  is  not 
to  be  denied,  but  that  telephone  and  telegraph 
companies,  which  are  privately  incorporated  com- 
panies, have  a  right  to  clutter  public  thoroughfares 
with  poles  and  wires,  disfiguring  the  town's  appear- 
ance and  even  menacing  life  and  property  in  time 
of  storm,  is  not  to  be  granted.  And  such  flagrant 
violation  of  public  right  as  cutting  off  the  tops  of 
whole  avenues  of  trees  to  allow  the  passage  of  wires 
and  telephone  lines  along  residential  thoroughfares, 
from  which  they  by  rights  should  be  excluded,  is 
one  of  those  cases  which  needs  only  united  effort 
to  prevent. 

Poles  and  wires  should  be  kept  from  streets  of 
the  business  section  and  residential  districts ;  setting 

147 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

poles  in  the  rear  of  lots  along  property  lines  is  a 
method  which  is  just  as  cheap  as  putting  them  on 
the  street  and  one  which  results  in  the  improved 
appearance  of  the  sections  concerned.  Where  poles 
seem  immutable  to  protest  as  often  in  the  case  of 
trolley  poles  and  electric  lights,  painting  them  an 
inconspicuous  shade  of  green  and  planting  vines 
at  their  base,  will  go  far  toward  taking  away  their 
ugly  appearance.4 

Other  Things  Calling  for  Correction. — Smoke 
works  harm  to  the  architectural  appearance  as  well 
as  the  health  of  the  town.  A  suppression  of  smoke 
would  make  for  better  appearance. 

Needlessly  dusty  streets,  dirty  sidewalks,  and  the 
uncontrolled  growth  of  weeds  during  summer 
months  on  public  and  private  property,  are  matters 
in  which  both  towns  and  citizens  are  frequently 
offenders.  Dead  trees,  shabby  fences,  and  dilapi- 
dated parts  of  dwellings  are  objects  which  neigh- 
borhood pride  usually  keeps  in  abeyance,  but  occa- 
sionally even  these  are  found  lowering  the  standard 
of  appearance  of  well-kept  neighboring  property. 

The  Adornment  of  the  Utilitarian. — Countless 
are  the  ways  in  which  the  adornment  of  the  utili- 
tarian may  be  accomplished.  In  the  best  archi- 
tecture about  us,  we  see  that  good  building  is 
something  more  than  the  erecting  of  a  shelter  from 
the  weather.  To  logical  building  is  added  arc!  - 

4  Cf.  p.  172,  par.  i. 

148 


BRIDGES  OF  STEEL  NEED  NOT  BE  UGLY 

A  bridge  that  is  strong,  durable,  and  beautiful  in  Mill  Creek  Park,  Youngs- 
town,  Ohio. 


A  HANDSOME   HISTORIC  LANDMARK 

The  well-known  Longfellow  House,  Cambridge.  Mass.     Its  history  goes  back  to 
Revolutionary  Days. 


CIVIC  ART 

tectural  style  with  its  manifold  accompaniments  6? 
fitting  ornament  and  carefully  studied  proportion. 
The  building  whether  it  be  a  freight  house  or  state 
capitol  must  first  meet  the  demands  of  use  and 
thereafter  gain  what  it  can  of  beauty. 

In  the  bridges  of  the  town,  Civic  Art  has  one  of 
its  greatest  opportunities.5  Modern  steel  and  iron 
bridges  lack  much  of  the  na'ive  picturesqueness 
which  bridges  of  masonry  possess;  but  even  in  the 
steel  bridge,  Civic  Art  need  not  despair,  beauty  is 
obtainable  in  girders  of  steel  and  in  the  lace  work 
of  small  parts  each  fitting  rhythmically  into  the 
whole. 

In  public  park  creation  and  adornment,  and  in 
the  dignifying  and  embellishment  of  street  furnish- 
ngs,6  Civic  Art  has  also  an  important  field  of  ac- 
tivity, a  field  so  obvious,  so  general,  and  of  such 
possibilities  that  the  movement  for  making  beauti- 
ful the  things  of  use  may  well  find  its  beginning 
here. 

Because  there  is  a  difference  between  mere  adorn- 
ment and  beauty,  care  is  needed  in  the  choice  of 
ornamental  features  for  the  town,  such  as  street 
lamp  standards,  street  signs,  and  the  like,  that  good 
proportion  of  parts  and  beauty  of  line  should  be 

8  Cf .  p.  74,  par.  2. 

"For  consideration  of  Street  Furnishings,  Street  Lighting, 
Street  Names,  Signs,  etc.,  see  Chap.  X. 

149 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

secured.     Here  trained  taste  must  dictate  what  is 
good  and  what  is  not.7 

Monuments  and  Statues. — It  has  been  said  that 
the  proportion  of  bad  monuments  to  good  ones  in 
our  towns  and  cities  is  probably  at  least  ten  to  one.8 
Many  a  town's  center  is  marred  by  an  unworthy 
monument  at  that  point,  and  oftentimes  too,  a 
fine  statue  is  marred  by  its  setting.  Like  any  archi- 
tectural form,  the  style  and  character  of  the  monu- 
ment or  statue  should  be  in  harmony  with  its  sur- 
roundings, and  these  should  make  for  it  a  proper 
setting.  Occasionally  a  statue  designed  to  hold  a 
prominent  and  dignified  position  in  the  town,  ends 
by  being  ridiculous,  merely  because  it  is  out  of  keep- 
ing with  its  surroundings.  It  is  difficult  for  a  figure 
to  appear  monumental  and  statuesque  in  modern 
attire.  Moreover  the  average  of  physical  appear- 
ance is  apt  to  fall  short  of  the  ideal.  The  pose  of 
the  figure  should,  if  possible,  tell  the  story  of  the 
services  of  the  individual.  The  statue  itself  may 
not  be  suited  to  certain  surroundings,  as  for  ex- 
ample, an  Indian  of  the  plains  placed  at  the  inter- 
section of  busy  streets  near  the  heart  of  the  town.9 
It  is  because  the  statue  of  the  individual  has  to  pass 
so  many  requirements  that  the  bust  portrait  is  apt 

7  Vid.  p.  158,  par.  2,  Guiding  and  Fostering  Public  Taste. 
"Mrs.  S.  Van  Rensselaer,  Art  Out  of  Doors,  p.  207. 
BCf.  The  Function  and  Placing  of  Sculpture,  Chap.  XIII, 
Improvement  of  Towns  and  Cities,  by  C.  M.  Robinson. 

150 


CIVIC  ART 

to  be  found  to  be  more  successful  for  a  public 
position. 

Sculpture,  like  other  forms  of  art,  is  to  be 
thought  of  as  conventional — as  symbolic.  It  ought 
not  to  aim  at  deceiving  us  into  thinking  that  the 
product  is  reality — that  the  sculptured  orator  is 
about  to  speak.  Once  we  are  surprised  by  an  at- 
tempt at  reality,  straightway  we  are  disgusted  at  the 
deception.  Just  here  is  shown  the  necessity  of  a 
pedestal  or  architectural  base  for  all  forms  of  sculp- 
ture, to  remind  us  of  the  fact  that  we  are  dealing 
with  symbolism. 

The  Location  of  Public  Buildings.™ — Oftentimes 
of  the  gravest  importance  to  the  town  is  the  ques- 
tion of  locating  or  placing  a  public  structure  such 
as  a  new  high  school,  an  art  gallery,  a  public  audito- 
rium and  so  forth.  This  is  not  a  slight  matter,  for 
once  a  building  is  planted  it  is  there  to  stay  indefi- 
nitely. 

Grade  schools  are  located  according  to  dis- 
trict need.  High  schools  draw  from  a  larger 
radius.  Art  galleries  and  libraries  demand  posi- 
tions which  are  accessible  to  all  and  still  if  pos- 
sible away  from  the  noise  and  dust  incident  to  a 
central  location.  The  use  to  be  made  of  the  struc- 
ture will  generally  decide  the  question  of  location 
in  a  fairly  sane  manner,  but  at  times,  so  many  con- 

10  The  Civic  Center  is  Considered,  par.  3,  p.  154.    Union 
Stations,  par.  4,  p.  62.    School  Houses,  par.  I,  p.  95. 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

siderations  of  private  interest  enter  in  that  it  is 
best  to  call  in  trained,  unbiased  professional  ad- 
vice— advice  based  upon  the  benefit  to  the  whole 
community  irrespective  of  local  prejudice.11 

Architecture  in  the  Business  Section.™ — A  lack 
of  dignity  and  uniformity  is  evident  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  buildings  which  line  the  business  streets 
in  cities.  This  is  more  noticeable  in  the  small  town 
than  in  the  metropolis,  the  reason  being  that  in  the 
large  city  there  is  more  uniform  progress  in  land 
development,  while  in  the  small  town  changes  may 
not  affect  wide  areas,  having  to  do  only  with  lots 
here  and  there  sometimes  for  a  long  period  of  years. 

What  we  see  in  the  architecture  of  the  average 
business  district  is  a  curious  mixture  of  styles  and 
conditions  of  building  heights.  We  see  many  build- 
ings which  are  obviously  past  their  usefulness,  like 
poor  old  cart  horses,  required  to  do  work  for  which 
they  are  no  longer  fitted.  A  modernizing  of  build- 
ings or  at  least  of  store  fronts  would  serve  to  give 
greater  harmony  to  the  streets'  appearance. 

Because  the  skyscraper  has  risen  in  the  metrop- 
olis, small  towns  have  sought  to  advertise  them- 
selves as  progressive  by  the  building  of  tall  build- 
ings. Though  one  cannot  deny  that  the  skyscraper 
lays  claim  to  grandeur  of  appearance,  still  it  may 

11  The  decision  of  an  unbiased  Art  Jury  might  avail  in  such 
matters  equally  well.  Cf.  par.  3,  p.  158. 

"The  subject  of  Architecture  in  the  Residence  Section  is 
taken  up  in  Chap.  XV,  p.  194. 

152 


THE  WATERFRONT  END  OF  A  CITY  STREET  MAY  STILL  BE  DIGNIFIED 

The  reason  why  San  Francisco  lends  a  good  first  and  last  impression 
to  the  traveler  is  easy  to  understand  from  this  illustration. 


A  LONELY   SKYSCRAPER 

In  small  cities  the  tall  office  building  is  frequently  built  to  advertise  up-to- 
dateness  rather  than  because  it  is  needed. 


CIVIC  ART 

prove  an  expensive  ornament  Not  only  do  tall 
buildings  shut  off  light  and  air,  but  they  serve  to 
prevent  the  proper  natural  expansion  of  the  busi- 
ness district. 

Building  Regulation. — The  greed  which  prompts 
the  owner  to  get  every  possible  dollar  out  of  his 
land  has  often  resulted  in  the  erection  of  cheap 
structures  in  the  business  and  residential  sections, 
structures  which  are  not  only  far  from  beautiful 
but  far  from  safe  and  healthful.  Land  values  have 
been  lowered  unduly  and  unfairly  by  the  establish- 
ment of  undesirable  classes  of  buildings,  as  where 
public  garages  and  minor  industrial  establishments 
are  erected  in  the  midst  of  a  business  section,  or 
where  shops  creep  Into  a  residence  district.13 

Some  building  regulation  is  necessary  in  all  com- 
munities. It  is  enacted  for  two  main  purposes,  first 
to  enforce  certain  building  regulations  and  restric- 
tions, and  second,  to  regulate  the  distribution  and 
use  of  various  classes  of  structures  on  the  city  plan. 

Restrictions  as  to  the  character  of  structures 
which  may  remain  or  be  built,  result  in  clearing  out 
undesirable  classes  of  buildings,  building  for  greater 
comfort  and  safety,  regulating  the  proportion  of 
building  to  lot  area,  limiting  the  height  of  the  aspir- 
ing skyscraper,  and  in  insuring  greater  stability  of 
land  values  in  all  parts  of  the  city. 

"Cf.  gradual  retreat  of  residential  section  before  growth 
of  retail  business  mentioned,  par.  3,  p.  16, 

153 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

Regulation  as  to  the  territorial  extent  of  certain 
classes  of  structures  come  under  the  head  of  "zon- 
ing" or  "districting,"  a  system  which  promises  to 
bring  about  great  change  for  the  better  in  our 
American  cities  where  it  is  being  carried  out. 
Under  it  the  city  is  divided  into  districts  or  zones 
each  set  apart  for  certain  general  classes  of  struc- 
tures. The  system  does  not  usually  limit  any  zone 
strictly  to  one  class  of  structures,  but  it  does  act 
to  keep  undesirable  structures  from  the  restricted 
districts. 

Local  ordinances  which  regulate  the  handling  of 
private  property,  of  course  depend  upon  the  pro- 
visions and  powers  of  each  community  as  set  forth 
in  the  state  constitution.  Our  American  cities  have 
not  nearly  as  much  leeway  in  such  matters  as  for- 
eign cities  whose  charters  frequently  allow  them 
almost  unlimited  powers  in  the  regulation  of  their 
own  affairs.  With  the  dawn  of  home  rule  in  our 
own  country  and  the  gradual  establishment  of  city 
planning  legislation,  much  more  may  be  looked  for 
in  the  future  in  the  matter  of  building  regulation. 

The  Civic  Center. — In  intimate  connection  with 
the  subject  of  Civic  Art  is  the  subject  of  the  Civic 
Center.14  The  World's  Fair  at  Chicago  in  1893, 

"A  definition  of  the  Civic  Center  might  be  given  as  a 
grouping  together  of  the  administrative  or  other  public  build- 
ings, with  the  aim  of  attaining  thereby,  the  utmost  efficiency 
in  the  transaction  of  the  public  business,  together  with  the 
maximum  of  beauty  in  architectural  effect. 

154 


CIVIC  ART 

was  perhaps  the  most  important  event  leading 
people  in  various  parts  of  the  country  to  an  appre- 
ciation of  the  impressiveness  produced  by  build- 
ings grouped  in  one  extensive  architectural  scheme. 
The  economy  of  space  there  exemplified,  the  unity 
of  the  building  groups  striking  the  mind  with  a 
singleness  of  impression,  had  the  effect  of  leading 
men  to  consider  anew  the  possibilities  of  the  group- 
ing of  public  buildings  within  the  city. 

In  past  years  so  much  emphasis  has  been  laid 
upon  the  building  of  elaborate  civic  centers  in  con- 
nection with  city  planning  schemes,  as  to  bring 
about  a  general  belief  that  in  the  establishment  of 
a  civic  center,  lay  the  sum  total  of  town  improve- 
ment. The  civic  center  in  its  place  is  heartily  to 
be  approved  of,  but  "It  is  enough  to  point  out  that 
of  real  city  planning,  the  civic  center  is  a  by- 
product, not  the  whole  thing,  as  its  spectacular 
appeal  once  led  people  to  believe.  It  is  the  flower, 
significant,  as  are  various  others,  of  the  health  of 
the  plant  of  civic  spirit — of  its  maturity  into 
beauty."  15 

As  a  place,  a  focal  point  of  community  life,  the 
civic  center  of  the  modern  city  finds  its  parallel  in 
the  civilization  of  former  days ;  the  temple  place  of 
the  Hebrews,  the  "Agora"  of  the  Greeks,  the 
Forum  of  the  Romans,  were  each  similar  in  their 
significance.  In  later  times  we  discover  a  similar 

"  Cf .  City  Planning,  by  C.  M.  Robinson,  p.  302. 
155 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

though  somewhat  modified  center  of  communal  life 
in  the  market  place  lying  in  the  shelter  of  the 
cathedral  or  the  town  hall  of  the  medieval  city. 
Later  we  see  its  partial  development  in  the  central 
square  of  more  prosaic  modern  times. 

The  Function,  Form  and  Position  of  a  Civic 
Center. — Considering  the  civic  center  as  a  place  of 
governmental  activity  where,  through  the  convenient 
grouping  of  public  structures,  public  business  may 
be  transacted  with  the  least  possible  loss  of  time,  we 
come  upon  a  point  of  distinction  between  the  civic 
center  in  its  true  sense  and  the  town  common  or 
village  green  of  many  modern  American  towns. 
The  latter  makes  for  quiet  openness,  quite  opposite 
in  character  to  the  civic  center.16 

The  town  or  city's  civic  center  may  take  on  a 
number  of  forms  compatible  with  the  life  and  the 
aspirations  of  the  community.  Because  civic 
centers  have  been  planned  which  cost  ten  million 
dollars,  is  no  cause  for  a  town's  feeling  that  it 
dare  not  plan  for  a  civic  center.  It  may  be  quite 
simple,  it  may  consist  merely  in  a  street  junction 
dignified  by  the  location  of  public  buildings,  which 
tell  as  a  unit  through  their  architectural  harmony. 

Government  activity  is  one  thing  and  private 
business  activity  another.  The  best  position  for  the 
civic  center  then  would  seem  to  be  near  but  just 
apart  from  the  center  of  retail  business.  The  exist- 

18  Cf.  Civic  Improvement,  by  F.  A.  Waugh. 

156 


CIVIC  ART 

ence  of  the  civic  center  midway  along  a  prominent 
business  street  may  cut  into  the  business  section, 
preventing  the  natural  extension  of  business  in  this 
or  that  direction.  "Business  abhors  a  vacuum." 
For  this  reason  the  position  of  the  civic  center 
should  be  studied  with  care. 

A  word  of  caution  is  to  be  given  as  to  the  crea- 
tion of  civic  centers  for  towns.  Extravagant  ex- 
penditure costing  millions  to  the  city,  when  the 
slums  of  that  city  are  still  in  unspeakable  condi- 
tion, is  to  be  guarded  against,  as  inconsistent  im- 
provement, and  as  directly  contrary  to  the  true 
spirit  of  civic  art.  The  case,  when  this  is  done,  is 
parallel  to  that  of  the  laborer  who  spent  all  his 
wages  for  a  set  of  china  dishes  and  found  that  he 
had  no  money  left  for  the  family's  steak. 

Perhaps  more  than  any  other  one  of  the  products 
of  civic  art,  a  well-planned  and  well-created  civic 
center,  makes  for  the  creation  of  civic  spirit.  When 
manifest  in  stone,  the  city's  centralized  life  becomes 
more  real  in  the  mind  of  the  citizen.  He  cannot  but 
feel  that  law,  government,  and  order,  are  actual  and 
not  imagined  entities,  and  that  he  has  in  it  all  a 
part  proprietorship.  For  its  influence  in  this  direc- 
tion, the  civic  center  has  without  doubt  a  reason  for 
being. 

The  Preservation  of  Historic  Landmarks. — So 
modernized  have  some  of  us  become  that  we  view 
with  contempt  what  is  old.  No  better  way  of 

157 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

keeping  the  individuality  of  an  all  to  ^individual 
town  is  to  be  found  than  by  keeping  what  is  archi- 
tecturally worthy  and  what  has  historic  interest. 
Some  landmarks  must  perhaps  give  way  to  modern 
structures,  when  the  area  they  occupy  becomes  of 
great  value;  but  too  often  no  heed  is  taken  as  to 
the  contribution  historic  sites  and  structures  make 
in  adding  beauty  and  interest  to  the  town. 

Guiding  and  Fostering  Public  Taste. — The  re- 
sponsibility of  making  choice  of  the  ornamental 
features  of  the  city  is  a  serious  one.  The  person 
or  persons  in  whom  power  of  choice  in  such  mat- 
ters is  vested,  owe  much  to  the  cornmunity.  It  is 
not  proper  for  an  individual  or  group  altogether 
untrained  in  the  principles  of  proportioii  and  beauty 
to  say,  "We  will  choose  this  to  ornament  our  city, 
our  decision  is  as  good  as  the  next  man's."  Yet 
often  this  is  done.  It  is  but  simple  fact  that  the 
best  opinion  in  lines  of  art  is  based,  like  the  phy- 
sician's opinion,  upon  training. 

The  inference  would  be  that  in  matters  of  selec- 
tion where  ornamental  qualities  are  concerned,  the 
choice  should  be  put  into  the  hands  of  persons 
whose  taste  may  be  relied  upon,  not  left  to  one 
whose  public  office  alone  gives  him  power  to  make 
the  choice.  A  plan  recommendable  for  towns  and 
cities  is  that  established  in  Philadelphia  in  1911  of 
having  an  Art  Jury,  whose  function  and  aims  are 
thus  described  in  its  First  Annual  Report: 

158 


CIVIC  ART 

"As  provided  by  law,  the  approval  of  the  jury  is 
required  before  any  work  of  art  may  become  the 
property  of  the  city  by  purchase,  gift  or  otherwise, 
and  this  approval  covers  the  location  of  the  work 
of  art  as  well  as  the  work  itself.  The  jury  can  be  of 
greater  service  to  the  city,  however,  if  the  designs  for 
all  public  and  semi-public  structures,  such  as  build- 
ings, bridges,  steel  fixtures  and  plans  for  public 
grounds,  parks,  parkways  and  playgrounds,  are  also 
submitted  to  it  by  the  several  Departments  of  the 
City  Government,  and  it  is  a  pleasure  to  report  that 
hearty  cooperation  has  been  promised  by  all  branches  of 
your  (the  mayor's)  administration  in  these  respects." 

By  the  terms  of  the  Act  creating  it,  the  members 
of  the  Jury  serve  without  compensation,  excepting 
the  Chief  Clerk  who  serves  at  a  fixed  salary.17 

Public  taste  may  be  further  guided  by  direct  edu- 
cational methods.  Nearly  every  citizen  can  be  in- 
terested in  the  idea  of  a  better  appearing  com- 
munity. Organized  public  lecture  courses,  or  the 
distribution  of  information  by  local  organizations 

"Mr.  Andrew  Wright  Crawford,  a  lawyer  of  Philadel- 
phia, has  most  ably  served  the  Jury  in  this  capacity  for  a 
number  of  years.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  many 
instances,  substantial  reductions  in  cost  have  resulted  from 
carrying  out  the  Jury's  recommendations.  During  the  period 
of  its  first  three  months  of  organization,  $41,000  was  the 
estimated  saving  to  the  city  in  this  way,  an  amount  faf  ex- 
ceeding the  City's  appropriation  of  $9,000  for  the  Jury's  ex- 
penses. Vid.  First  Annual  Report  Art  Jury,  Philadelphia, 
1911. 

159 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

will  do  a  great  deal  to  elevate  the  standard  of  pub- 
lic taste. 

Summary. — Civic  Art  in  its  broadest  sense  means 
the  whole  art  of  city  building.  As  applied  to  par- 
ticular parts  of  the  city  it  may  be  defined  as  mak- 
ing what  is  necessary  in  as  beautiful  a  way  as  pos- 
sible. Among  the  products  of  Civic  Art  there  are 
those  objects  whose  purpose  is  primarily  utilitarian 
and  those  whose  chief  function  is  educational. 
Civic  Art's  scope  consists  in  correcting  that  which 
destroys  the  community's  good  appearance,  and  in 
raising  in  its  place  the  thing  of  use  and  beauty. 
Certain  corrective  measures  of  Civic  Art  also  are 
important. 

Local  authorities  and  individuals  are  not  always 
capable  of  making  decisions  in  matters  of  Civic 
Art.  An  art  jury  for  towns  and  cities  is  to  be 
recommended,  in  whose  hands  may  be  placed  the 
acceptance  or  rejection  of  designs  for  features 
which  must  later  hold  prominent  positions  in  the 
town. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  EQUIPMENT  AND   FURNISHINGS   OF 
THE  STREET 

THE  street  is  so  bound  up  with  our  lives  and  ex- 
periences as  to  become  a  kind  of  personality.  Con- 
sider for  a  moment  the  varying  ideas  which  it 
brings  to  mind,  on  the  one  hand  quiet  residences, 
homes;  on  the  other,  business,  hurrying  crowds, 
amusements.  The  term  suggests  at  once  the  light 
hearted,  the  earnest  minded,  and  the  unfortunate. 

From  the  streets*  appearance  is  largely  formed 
our  impression  of  a  town.  This  is  natural,  since  the 
streets  are  the  most  conspicuous  objects  that  meet 
the  eye  as  we  move  from  place  to  place.  Inten- 
tions may  be  the  best,  but  it  is  from  evidence  of 
the  streets'  appearance  that  we  form  much  of  our 
estimate  of  any  community. 

By  street  equipment  we  mean  whatever  is  placed 
on  the  street,  contributing  to  its  use.1  These  fea- 
tures contribute  an  important  part  to  the  street's 

1The  subject  of  street  cross  sections  and  street  trees  are 
elsewhere  considered;  vid.  Street  Width,  Chap.  IV;  Street 
Planting,  Chap.  XIV. 

161 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

efficiency  and  to  its  appearance.  A  street  system 
may  be  ideal,  but  unless  fitted  with  serviceable  pave- 
ments, proper  lighting,  and  other  needful  furnish- 
ings the  street  cannot  fulfill  its  purpose. 

Street  Pavements.  —  Wherever  roads  or  streets 
are  extensively  traveled  over,  a  certain  amount  of 
constructive  work  upon  them  is  necessary  to  render 
the  natural  surface  less  destructible  by  the  elements, 
and  by  the  traffic  which  passes  over  them.  This 
artificial  surface,  called  the  street  pavement,  is  made 
of  various  materials,  those  most  commonly  used, 
are  the  following: 

c  f  Cobble. 

i.  Stone- 


2.  Wood—  Block. 

3.  Brick. 

f  Sheet. 
4-  Asphalt-  j  BlQck> 

5.  Cement  Concrete. 

6.  Bituminous  materials   (other  than  block  or  sheet 

asphalt). 

Besides  being  the  least  attractive  feature  of  the 
street,  the  pavement  is  by  far  the  most  expensive. 
Right  here  are  good  arguments  against  too  wide 
roadways. 

Various  kinds  of  pavement  serve  various  condi- 
tions ;  for  example,  a  wood  block  pavement  may  be 
the  best  one  for  part  of  the  down  town  district, 

162 


EQUIPMENT  AND  FURNISHINGS  OF  STREET 

while  a  brick  pavement  will  be  best  for  another 
part.  Similarly  in  this  part  of  the  residential  sec- 
tion an  asphalt  pavement  may  be  best,  and  in  that 
a  bituminous  macadam,  depending  on  the  character 
of  the  neighborhood  and  the  traffic  to  which  it  is 
to  be  subjected. 

An  ideal  pavement2  for  any  part  of  town  is  one 
of  which  it  can  be  said  that  it  is  durable,  reasonably 
noiseless,  smooth  but  not  slippery,  of  low  first  cost 
(comparative),  non-productive  of  dust  and  mud, 
easy  to  keep  clean,  and  easy  and  economical  to 
repair. 

The  qualities  of  various  pavements  may  be 
spoken  of  in  a  comparative  way  as  follows,  though 
the  summary  is  intended  to  be  only  a  general  one: 

Cobble  Stone. — Of  low  first  cost,  its  single  merit; 
stones  do  not  hold  in  place  well,  the  surface  is  there- 
fore hard  to  keep  in  good  condition ;  noisy  under  iron 
wheels,  rough,  hard  to  keep  clean. 

Stone  Block. — Durable,  blocks  wear  round  on  edges, 
and  pavement  apt  to  become  slippery;  blocks  easily 
displaced,  apt  to  become  rough;  noisy  and  hard  to 
keep  clean. 

Wood  Block. — Noiseless;  soft  for  horses  feet; 
smooth,  slippery ;  absorbs  noxious  liquids ;  not  durable 

*In  preparing  these  statements  much  has  been  drawn  from 
Roads  and  Pavements,  by  I.  O.  Baker,  pp.  445  to  566,  and 
Elements  of  Highway  Engineering,  by  A.  H.  Blanchard, 
various  pages. 

163 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

for  heavy  traffic;  expensive,  light;  good  for  bridge 
paving  and  the  retail  districts  of  cities. 

Sheet  Asphalt. — Smooth,  of  easy  traction ;  compara- 
tively noiseless,  dustless,  easy  to  keep  clean,  non-ab- 
sorbent, resilient;  requires  expert  labor  to  lay  and  to 
repair;  small  uneven  spaces  or  cracks  wear  rapidly 
into  bad  spots;  generally  considered  too  smooth  for 
steep  grades ;  affected  by  water  and  heat ;  expensive. 

Block  Asphalt. — Less  slippery  than  above;  can  be 
used  on  steeper  grades ;  can  be  laid  and  repaired  with- 
out expert  labor;  not  apt  to  show  long  cracks  owing 
to  joints;  however,  blocks  often  crack;  needs  less  re- 
pair than  sheet  asphalt,  owing  to  thicker  surface;  not 
as  easy  to  clean;  first  cost  comparatively  high;  edges 
of  blocks  chip  off,  wear  rough ;  somewhat  more  noisy 
under  wheels  than  sheet  asphalt;  joints  absorb 
liquids. 

Cement  Concrete. — Smooth,  dustless;  not  slippery; 
very  durable  if  well  laid;  easy  to  clean;  not  difficult 
to  repair;  fairly  expensive;  apt  to  crack  unless  base 
well  made  and  drainage  good;  hard  on  horses1  feet; 
reflects  heat. 

Brick. — Can  be  laid  in  small  units  of  uniform  size; 
obtainable  in  small  or  large  quantities;  does  not  re- 
quire expert  labor  to  lay;  rapidly  laid;  easily  taken 
up  and  relaid;  does  not  wear  slippery;  good  for  all 
grades,  as  special  brick  can  be  used  on  steep  slopes; 
comparatively  noiseless;  dustless;  easy  to  clean; 
durable;  non-resilient;  reflects  heat;  hard  on  horses' 
feet. 

Bituminous  Macadam  and  Bituminous  Concrete. — 
Free  from  dust;  useful  especially  in  residence,  park, 

164 


EQUIPMENT  AND  FURNISHINGS  OF  STREET 

and  rural  districts;  of  comparatively  low  first  cost; 
noiseless;  good  sanitary  qualities;  not  as  durable  as 
certain  other  pavements  for  heavy  traffic ;  not  slippery 
if  proper  coats  applied  to  surface. 

There  is,  of  course,  no  such  thing  as  an  inde- 
structible pavement.  In  the  making  of  any  one 
attention  must  be  given  to  seeing  that  the  subgrade 
is  well  drained,  and  that  the  final  surface  is  to 
rest  upon  an  even  and  solid  foundation.  Small 
irregularities  or  cracks  from  settling  soon  wear  into 
bad  spots  with  the  continuous  pounding  of  wheels. 
Nowhere — to  use  a  rather  badly  mixed  metaphor — 
does  a  stitch  in  time  save  nine  as  truly  as  in  the 
repair  of  a  street  pavement. 

Gutters,  Curbs,  and  Other  Features,  at  the  Pave- 
ment's Edge. — In  early  times  in  streets,  and  still 
in  the  case  of  some  alleys,  the  drainage  has  been 
made  toward  the  center.  The  modern  street  drains 
to  the  gutter  at  each  side. 

The  gutter  must  be  impervious  to  water,  and  for 
this  reason  is  often  of  different  material  than  the 
road  itself.  For  residence  sections  and  park  drives, 
grass  or  cobblestone  gutters  without  curb  may  be 
used,  though  there  is  in  this  the  danger  that  traffic 
will  not  observe  the  boundary  and  cut  into  the 
grass,  and  the  disadvantage  that  it  is  difficult  to 
keep  the  line  of  turf  from  growing  ragged  at  the 
edge. 

165 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

Stone  or  concrete  are  the  usual  materials  for 
curbs.  Curbs  and  gutters  of  the  latter  material  re- 
quire a  cinder  foundation  to  keep  them  at  their 
original  level.  Curbs  should  be  at  least  four  inches 
high  to  take  care  of  the  water  that  at  times  flows 
in  the  gutter.  Six  inches  is  the  ordinary  height. 
Nine  or  ten  inches  would  be  the  maximum  without 
additional  steps  being  made  at  crossings. 

Stone  block  and  cobblestone  curbs  are  sometimes 
used  on  residential  streets  and  park  roads.  Wooden 
planks  for  curbs  are  always  to  be  considered  a 
temporary  expedient. 

The  most  common  radius  for  corner  curbs  is  four 
feet.  A  larger  radius,  however,  will  be  found  to 
aid  traffic  in  turning  the  corner.  In  residence  sec- 
tions a  large  turn  results,  too,  in  an  improvement 
in  the  appearance  of  the  street. 

The  form  of  inlets  and  of  gutter  crossings  used 
in  street  varies  greatly.  Inlets  should  be  both 
frequent  and  large  enough  to  allow  for  the  free 
inflow  of  water.  Screening  is  often  practiced  to 
prevent  large  material  from  entering.  Catch  basins, 
it  is  needful  to  add,  need  regular  cleaning,  as  a 
large  amount  of  refuse  enters  them  from  the 
street. 

When  iron  gutter  crossings  are  used  they  should 
be  such  that  they  will  stay  in  place.  Bad  accidents 
from  this  source  are  quite  common. 

Side  and  Center  Parkings. — From  four  to  eleven 
166 


A  DANGEROUS  CONDITION  AT  A   GUTTER  CROSSING 
The  need  for  improvement  extends  further,  as  seen  by  the  condition  of  the 

gutter. 


SIDEWALK   AND    ROADWAY    AT   DIFFERENT   LEVELS 

Occasional  handling  in  this  way  lessens  engineering  problems,  saves  expense 

in  construction,  and  often  contributes  to  the  interesting  appearance 

of  a  street. 


EQUIPMENT  AND  FURNISHINGS  OF  STREET 

feet  is  about  the  range  of  width  for  a  side  park- 
ing! Less  than  four  gives  a  space  too  cramped 
for  tree  development.  The  propriety  of  having 
a  grass  parking  along  the  street's  curb  line  as 
well  as  the  form  and  amount  of  this  turf  depends 
upon  the  character  of  the  street.  In  downtown 
sections  street  space  is  precious  and  the  whole  dis- 
tance between  curb  and  property  line  is  properly 
claimed  by  sidewalk.  In  residence  sections  the 
presence  of  parking  is  amply  justified  by  the 
added  beauty  which  it  gives.  On  parkways  and 
boulevards  a  center  strip  or  parking  is  often  used 
serving  the  double  purpose  of  giving  a  park-like 
aspect  to  the  street  and  serving  to  separate  traffic 
flowing  in  each  direction. 

General  suggestions  in  regard  to  the  width  of 
center  parkings  for  streets  would  be  that  the  center 
grass  strip  should  be  equal  to  or  slightly  greater 
than  that  of  each  roadway  at  the  side.  Anything 
under  the  proportion  given  appears  meager  when 
constructed.  This  would  set  the  minimum  width 
for  a  center  parking  at  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet.3 

The  matter  of  giving  the  turf  in  the  center  uni- 
form care  is  important  to  the  street's  appearance. 
To  this  end  it  would  be  well  to  have  the  city  under- 
take the  care  of  grass  in  all  center  parkings  rather 
than  trust  it  to  abutting  residents. 

'Suggestions  as  to  planting  center  and  side  parkings  are 
made  in  Chap.  X,  p.  189. 

167 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

Sidewalks. — Sidewalks  must  be  sufficiently  wide 
and  level  to  accommodate  foot  traffic  comfortably.4 
The  material  of  which  sidewalks  are  made  is  com- 
paratively limited.  Plank,  and  brick  walks  have 
given  place  to  stone  or  cement,  because  the  latter 
are  found  to  be  far  dryer,  smoother  and  generally 
more  efficient. 

Where  the  sidewalk  is  crossed  by  drive  entrance 
the  walk  at  this  point  should  be  given  greater 
thickness  to  protect  the  walk  against  breakage. 
When  the  walk  is  next  the  curb  or  but  a  few  feet 
from  it,  the  drive  entrance  should  be  made  in  a 
way  to  prevent  a  depression  or  sudden  incline  in 
the  walk's  surface.  Evenness  of  surface  on  side- 
walks is  essential  to  safety  as  well  as  to  comfort. 

Street  Lighting. — We  rightly  insist  to-day  on 
well-lighted  streets,  even  in  suburban  districts, 
though  the  cost  of  the  undertaking  of  such  lighting 
is  a  large  item  and  its  management  a  complicated 
problem.  The  days  of  torch  and  lantern  carrying 
are  over  for  the  townsman.  Street  lighting  serves 
two  purposes:  first,  it  insures  safer  travel  to  citi- 
zens and  traffic,  and  second,  it  lends  attractiveness 
to  the  town  by  night.  In  residence  districts  the 
amount  of  lighting  required  is  that  sufficient  to  in- 
sure safety,  but  not  to  give  annoyance  to  residences 
from  glare.  In  this  respect  the  problem  differs 
from  that  in  the  downtown  district;  for  here,  it  is 

4Cf.  Chapter  IV,  p.  50,  par.  2;  Width  of  Sidewalks. 
1 68 


EQUIPMENT  AND  FURNISHINGS  OF  STREET 

quite  proper  to  have  a  flood  of  light  illuminating 
building  fagades. 

Street  lights  should  illuminate  without  blinding 
the  drivers  of  vehicles.  An  ideal  system  would 
have  incandescent  lamps  in  enclosed  globes  at 
the  side  of  the  street  rather  than  hanging  over 
the  center.  In  general,  the  present  tendency  is  to- 
ward small  units  placed  frequently  and  relatively 
low.  Cluster  lights  are  giving  place  to  single 
standards  as  being  more  effective  and  more 
economical  for  street  illumination.5 

A  variety  of  lamp  standards  are  seen  in  various 
communities.  Unfortunately,  not  all  of  them  are 
of  a  type  worthy  of  their  prominent  position.  A 
utility  as  much  in  evidence  as  street  lamps  should 
have  a  form  that  renders  them  ornamental  by  day 
as  well  as  by  night.  They  need  appear  neither 
elephantine,  nor  of  a  slenderness  to  suggest  the 
cord  by  which  circus  balloons  are  kept  captive. 
Good  proportion,  inconspicuousness,  and  grace  are 
the  qualities  that  should  be  sought. 

Street  Names  and  Signs. — Street  names  in  most 
cities  bear  little  relation  to  anything  at  all.  They 
are  like  anagrams  in  a  box,  recognizable  but 
meaning  nothing.  Can  we  not  choose  names  for 

"Detroit,  Cleveland,  and  other  cities  tried  placing  power- 
ful lamps  on  high  masts  but  trees  and  buildings  threw  such 
dense  shadows  that  the  system  proved  impracticable.  Arti- 
cle for  paper,  Prof.  M.  Brooks,  U.  of  111.  Proceedings  of 
Illinois  Municipal  League,  1915,  p.  19. 

169 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

our  streets  which  will  have  some  significance  ?  The 
record  of  a  local  or  national  event,  even  possibly  a 
characteristic  of  the  street  itself,  or  a  term  record- 
ing the  service  which  it  performs.  To  do  so  would 
be  to  give  life  to  something  lifeless.  While  the 
naming  of  streets  after  letters  and  numbers  is  to 
be  recommended  only  occasionally,  this  has  at  least 
the  merit  of  unity  and  sequence.  The  most  satis- 
factory system  would  be  one  in  which  the  name  of 
the  street  would  immediately  lead  to  a  recognition 
of  its  position  on  plan  for  persons  but  partially 
familiar  with  the  district. 

Street  name  signs  should  be  plainly  in  evidence. 
The  stranger  in  a  town  is  always  grateful  for  the 
courtesy  of  being  directed  plainly  by  sign  to  the 
street  which  he  desires. 

The  position  given  street  signs  should  be  uni- 
form throughout  the  city,  whether  consisting  of 
names  in  the  sidewalk  at  the  crossing,  or  borne 
on  standards.  Street  names  should  be  readable 
from  any  corner.  Perhaps,  after  all,  the  most  im- 
portant recommendation  in  regard  to  these  simple 
utilities  is  that  they  should  not  disfigure  the  streets.' 

House  Numbering. — The  systems  of  house  num- 
bering in  use  are  different  in  different  places,  but 
it  is  to  be  urged  that  the  numbering  of  houses  like 
the  naming  of  streets  be  done  so  that  the  searcher 
*  Ref .  A.  H.  Folwell,  Municipal  Engineering  Practice,  p.  284. 
170 


EQUIPMENT  AND  FURNISHINGS  OP  STREET 

may  estimate  a  locality  when  once  the  number  be- 
comes known  to  him. 

The  universal  adoption  within  the  town  of 
number  signs  of  similar  appearance  and  the  uni- 
form placing  of  these  on  homes  would  be  an  aid 
in  finding  locations  and  would  add  a  great  deal  to 
the  appearance  of  the  street. 

Incidental  Features. — There  remain  other  fea- 
tures of  street  equipment  which  space  permits  little 
more  than  naming.  Such  would  be  drinking 
fountains,  waiting  stations,  poles,  rubbish  recep- 
tacles, and  so  on. 

Fountains  of  the  bubble  type  are  useful  in  the 
downtown  district,  provided  they  are  kept  in  re- 
pair. Their  position  is  best  out  of  the  way  of 
traffic.  Rubbish  receptacles  are  a  great  aid,  par- 
ticularly near  public  open  spaces,  in  keeping  stray 
papers  off  the  street. 

Waiting  stations  for  street  cars  are  called  for 
now  and  then  in  the  downtown  district  where  there 
is  a  convergence  of  street  car  lines.  Of  public  com- 
fort stations  in  the  business  district,  our  towns  and 
cities  are  woefully  lacking.  The  form  of  these, 
as  that  of  street  car  waiting  stations,  should  be 
inconspicuous,  yet  of  neat  architectural  appearance. 

The  poles  supporting  trolley  wires  are  features 
that  seem  to  be  necessary  evils  on  certain  streets. 
Their  presence  had  best  be  rendered  as  unnoticeable 

171 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

as  possible.7  Ornamentation  of  them  is  some- 
times attempted.  At  times  the  wires  are  supported 
by  brackets  fastened  into  the  fronts  of  buildings  in 
the  business  district.  Fire  plugs  and  post  boxes 
are  utilities  to  which  little  attention  is  paid  as  to 
appearance,  yet  here,  too,  a  choice  may  be  made 
between  what  is  ugly  and  what  is  in  good  taste. 

Summary. — Though  a  street  system  may  be  ideal, 
its  efficiency  depends  in  a  large  degree  upon  its 
proper  equipment.  An  examination  of  street  equip- 
ment shows  such  important  features  as  street  pave- 
ments, curbs,  and  gutters,  street  lighting,  street 
name  signs,  house  numbering,  and  such  other 
things.  In  all  such  equipment  the  aim  should  be 
for  efficiency,  economy  in  cost,  proper  placing  and 
good  appearance. 

1  Cf .  Chapter  XII,  p,  147,  par.  & 


CHAPTER  XIV 

STREET  TREES  AND  OTHER  STREET  PLANTING 

THE  planting  of  trees  in  towns  and  cities  is  well 
nigh  universal:  even  in  arid  regions  some  attempt 
is  usually  made  to  plant  the  streets,  the  need  of  it 
being  instinctively  felt.  Indeed  it  would  be  hard 
for  us  to  imagine  a  town  as  livable  with  treeless 
streets  to-day. 

Contrast  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Cities. — If  we 
were  to  be  transported  back  to  the  ancient  cities  of 
the  world,  the  first  point  of  difference  which  would 
strike  us  would  probably  be  the  absence  of  trees 
on  the  streets.  In  walled-in  cities  space  was  pre- 
cious, shops  and  residences  intermingled,  and  trees, 
where  they  did  exist,  were  to  be  seen  only  in  a  few 
public  open  spaces  and  in  private  grounds. 

When,  however,  city  walls  were  no  longer  a 
necessity,  and  new  cities  began  to  be  built  with- 
out them,  the  presence  of  trees  on  streets  came  to 
be  recognized  as  a  means  of  bringing  the  country 
into  the  city,  not  alone  for  esthetic,  but  for  hygienic 
reasons  as  well. 

Street  Planting;  a  Neglected  Science. — Though 
street  planting  is  to-day  so  universal  a  part  of  town 

173 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

making,  it  must  be  admitted  that  it  is  rarely  car- 
ried out  to  the  degree  of  perfection  that  it  might 
be.  As  has  been  well  stated:1 

"Pavements,  curbs,  sidewalks,  drainage  and  street 
lighting  have  been  considered  carefully,  and  expendi- 
tures for  their  provision  have  been  made  liberally,  but 
the  planting  of  shade  trees  along  streets  and  roadways 
is  a  form  of  improvement  that,  while  it  is  of  incal- 
culable value,  has  received  comparatively  little  atten- 
tion from  a  municipal  standpoint." 

That  a  tree  is  just  a  tree  and  that  so  long  as 
trees  are  found  here  and  there  along  the  streets, 
in  what  condition  it  would  seem  not  to  matter,  the 
town  believes  that  its  duty  by  its  street  trees  has 
been  done.  It  is  the  exception  to  find  a  street,  much 
less  a  whole  town,  where  street  planting  receives 
the  full  attention  which  it  should;  and  this  in  the 
face  of  the  fact  that  for  the  amount  of  money  ex- 
pended more  effect  of  beauty  and  general  livable- 
ness  over  the  face  of  the  town  can  be  secured  by 
street  planting  than  in  any  other  way. 

Reasons  for  Street  Tree  Planting. — The  argu- 
ments which  might  be  advanced  for  street  tree 
planting  are  increased  beauty  in  the  town's  appear- 
ance and  increased  healthfulness.  The  simple 
presence  of  green  trees  in  the  city  has  a  beneficial 

1  Bulletin,  Systematic  Street  Tree  Planting,  p.  14,  by  H.  R. 
Francis,  University  of  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

174 


AN  IDEAL  FORM  FOR  A  YOUNG  STREET  TREE 

Straight  of  stem,  with  compact  head,  and  lower  branches  which  can  readily 
be  trimmed  as  the  tree  matures. 


SPARED   IN   THE   PATH   OF   PROGRESS 

Allowing  a  fine  specimen  of  this  kind  to  remain,  and  leading  the  roadway 

around  it,  is  one  way  of  adding  interest  and  individuality 

to  a  residence  tract. 


STREET  TREES  AND  OTHER  PLANTING 

effect  upon  the  minds  of  all ;  the  shelter  which  they 
offer  from  sun,  wind,  dust  and  even  from  sound  are 
considerations  which  are  not  always  seriously  re- 
garded. It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  foliage  of 
trees  by  absorbing  carbonic  acid  gas  and  by  giving 
off  oxygen  into  the  air  helps  to  purify  the  at- 
mosphere. From  the  health  standpoint  a  statement 
made  by  the  New  York  Medical  Society  is  in  itself 
a  strong  argument  for  street  trees. 

Resolved,  That  one  of  the  most  effective  means 
for  mitigating  the  intense  heat  of  the  summer  months 
and  diminishing  the  death-rate  among  children  is  the 
cultivation  of  an  adequate  number  of  trees  in  the 
street.2 

The  Requirements  in  Street  Tree  Planting. — If 
street  tree  planting  is  not  done  as  well  as  it  might 
be  there  must  be  definite  reasons  for  this.  Briefly, 
these  reasons  would  seem  to  be  (i)  that  the  work 
is  seldom  under  one  person's  supervision.  It  is 
done  usually  by  each  property  holder  on  the  street 
according  to  his  own  taste,  and  therefore  is  lack- 
ing in  consistency  and  unity  for  any  extended  area ; 
(2)  that  individuals  and  officials  have  seemed  to 
lack  knowledge  of  the  science  of  street  tree  planting. 

There  is  a  good  deal  more  to  street  planting  than 
ordering  a  tree  at  random  from  a  catalogue,  dig- 

*  Resolution  of  the  New  York  County  Medical  Society, 
Shade  Trees  for  Towns  and  Cities,  by  Wm.  Solataroff,  p.  40. 

175 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

ging  a  hole  and  sticking  in  the  tree.  Street  planting 
bears  careful  study.  A  knowledge  of  several  things 
is  required.  In  order  these  are : 

1.  The  proper  choice  of  tree. 

2.  The  proper  placing  of  the  tree. 

3.  The  actual  operation  of  planting. 

4.  The  subsequent  care  of  the  street  tree. 

The  Choice  of  the  Street  Tree. — The  question  is 
often  asked,  "What  tree  shall  I  select  for  a  street 
tree?"  When  we  come  to  understand  how  many 
considerations  are  to  be  weighed,  we  realize  that 
the  answer  to  this  question  is  not  an  easy  one.  We 
shall  perhaps  understand  why  out  of  the  fifty  or 
more  possible  kinds  of  streets  trees,  the  best  trees  for 
use  are  included  in  a  short  list  of  ten  or  twelve 
varieties.  There  are  certain  qualifications  which 
a  good  street  tree  must  possess.  These  qualities 


1.  Hardiness. 

2.  Straightness  and  symmetry. 

3.  Comparative  immunity  from  insect  attack. 

4.  A  proper  amount  of  foliage. 

5.  Cleanliness. 

6.  Rapidity  of  growth. 

7.  Longevity. 

8.  A  proper  root  system. 

*  Shade  Trees  in  Towns  and  Cities,  by  Wm.  Solataroff,  p,  7, 

176 


STREET  TREES  AND  OTHER  PLANTING 

The  test  which  street  trees  have  to  pass  is  a 
severe  one.  One  should  add  that  a  variety  which 
grows  well  in  one  part  of  town  may  not  do  so  well  in 
another,  owing  to  different  conditions ;  for  example, 
some  trees  which  grow  well  in  the  residential  section, 
as  the  elm,  will  not  succeed  as  well  near  the  heart  of 
town.  Let  us  consider  the  attributes  mentioned. 

Hardiness. — The  street  tree  must  be  able  to  with- 
stand conditions  that  would  be  unfavorable  to 
ordinary  tree  growth — conditions  of  poor  soil, 
drought,  heat,  dust,  and  the  stress  and  strain  of 
wind  and  ice  storms.  It  must  not  be  a  delicate  or 
particular  tree,  since  at  best  it  "must  grow  like  a 
flower  in  a  flower  pot."  The  street  tree  should 
endure  transplanting  readily,  be  able  to  start  quickly 
into  growth  after  being  moved,  and  finally  should 
be  of  a  kind  that  is  easily  propagated. 

It  is  when  we  consider  planting  near  the  heart 
of  the  city,  or  in  the  thickly  built  sections  that 
special  attention  to  hardiness  must  be  given.  The 
oriental  plane  and  the  gingko,  the  linden  and  the 
hackberry,  are  among  the  best  trees  to  plant  when 
conditions  are  especially  adverse. 

Straightness  and  Symmetry. — The  lines  of  street 
curb,  roadway,  and  of  sidewalk  are  things  of 
more  or  less  formal  character.  The  planting  along 
the  street  is  most  successful  if  it  falls  in  with  the 
formality  of  the  street.4  For  our  street  tree  we 

4  An  exception  can  be  made  when  trees  of  irregular  habit 
177 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

would  choose  a  tree  of  somewhat  symmetrical  out- 
line, one  with  a  fairly  straight  trunk  and  regular 
head.  The  Norway  maple  and  the  pin  oak  come 
to  mind  as  trees  of  this  kind.  Evergreens  give  us 
formal  shape,  but  are  never  good  as  street  trees 
because  the  spreading  lower  branches  come  to  the 
ground,  preventing  a  view  beneath  along  the  street 
from  the  sidewalk  which  would  have  the  effect  of 
seeming  to  narrow  the  appearance  of  the  street. 

A  Reasonable  Degree  of  Immunity  from  In- 
sects and  Disease. — While  few  trees  are  free 
from  insect  and  disease  pests,  still  some  are  much 
more  so  than  others.  Some  trees  act  as  inviting 
lodging  places  for  parasites.  For  the  street  we 
want  a  tree  which,  though  it  may  have  a  particular 
enemy,  is  not  the  object  of  attack  of  the  whole 
bug  kingdom.  The  hackberry,  oak  and  gingko  are 
trees  of  this  character. 

A  Proper  Amount  of  Shade. — The  street  tree 
should  offer  abundant,  but  not  too  much  shade. 
Trees  of  open  and  sprawling  character  like  our 
native  sycamore  are  not  ideal  street  trees.  Its 
cousin  the  oriental  sycamore  is  very  satisfactory 
from  this  point  of  view.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
horse  chestnut  is  a  tree  which  offers  such  dense 
shade  that  there  is  difficulty  in  earth  and  macadam 
roads  drying  off  properly  beneath.  The  American 

are  used  in  groups  bordering  a  curved  suburban  street  or 
lane. 

178 


STREET  TREES  AND  OTHER  PLANTING 

elm  offers  ideal  shade,  with  branches  sufficiently 
high  to  insure  opportunity  for  the  growth  of  grass 
at  the  base. 

Cleanliness. — Some  trees  have  the  bad  habit  of 
always  dropping  something.  The  Carolina  poplar 
is  in  this  class;  its  leaves  begin  to  fall  almost  as 
soon  as  they  mature.  Some  trees  drop  twigs;  the 
catalpa,  though  it  is  an  interesting  tree,  fairly 
litters  the  street  with  whiteness  during  blossoming 
time.  The  mulberry  is  an  example  of  tree  which 
is  apt  to  stain  the  sidewalk  with  its  fruit.  The 
street  tree  should  be  cleanly  and  hold  its  foliage 
well  throughout  the  summer. 

Reasonable  Rapidity  of  Growth. — The  term 
"quick  growing"  is  a  relative  one  when  it  comes 
to  making  a  choice  of  tree.  Although  rapidity  of 
growth  is  desirable,  it  is  not  to  be  had  at  the  ex- 
pense of  quality.  Most  of  the  quick  growing  trees 
are  short  lived.  Too  much  is  usually  expected  of 
trees  at  first.  As  a  rule  they  grow  slowly  for  the 
first  two  or  three  years  after  planting  and  should 
not  be  judged  severely  by  what  they  do  within 
this  time;  the  elm  is  a  very  ungainly  tree  in  its 
early  stage,  but  later  one  of  the  most  beautiful. 
Trees  seem  to  be  divided  into  three  groups  as  re- 
gards growth — the  very  rapid  or  weedy  growers 
such  as  the  poplars,  the  medium  growers  such  as 
the  pin  oak,  maples  and  elms,  and  the  slow  growers 
such  as  the  white  and  black  oaks.  It  is  from  the 

179 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

second  class  that  most  of  our  street  trees  will  come. 

Longevity. — It  is  desirable  that  the  street  tree 
should  last  for  a  long  period — fifteen  to  twenty 
years  is  not  long  enough  to  provide  for.  The  tree 
of  proper  choice  will  be  but  reaching  maturity  by 
that  time.  The  real  beauty  of  the  elm  is  seen  when 
it  advances  to  a  ripe  age  permitting  it  to  arch  over 
the  roadway.  By  many  the  elm  is  called  the  ideal 
street  tree.  It  is  certainly  well  in  the  foremost 
rank,  though  in  some  localities,  as  in  New  England, 
it  has  been  subject  to  terrific  ravages  from  certain 
insect  pests. 

A  Proper  Root  System. — Trees  with  a  shallow 
root  growth  are  liable  to  be  blown  over  in  storms. 
Other  objections  would  be  that  grass  is  unable  to 
grow  well  where  roots  are  near  the  surface.  Such 
trees  are  apt  to  be  the  first  to  show  the  effect  of  a 
cramped  position.  The  Carolina  poplar  mentioned 
above  has  an  aggravating  root  system.  Its  roots  are 
so  near  the  surface  as  to  make  grass  growing  diffi- 
cult. Sprout  growth,  too,  is  frequent,  and  it  has 
often  been  known  to  grow  into  small  apertures 
in  drains  and  eventually  clog  them  with  solid 
masses  of  rootlets. 

Nursery  grown  stock  is  better  for  street  planting 
than  trees  found  in  the  woods.  The  reason  is  that 
trees  grown  in  the  nursery  row  are  cultivated  in 
a  way  to  produce  a  compact  root  system,  while  the 
roots  of  those  taken  from  the  woods  are  likely  to 

1 80 


STREET  TREES  AND   OTHER  PLANTING 

have  a  sprawling  habit.  The  compact  roots  of  the 
nursery-grown  tree  enables  it  to  grow  quickly  in 
the  hole  prepared. 

The  Placing  of  Street  Trees?— -Street  trees  stand 
in  what  is  commonly  called  the  "side  parking" — 
the  space  between  sidewalk  and  curb.  When  this 
strip  is  less  than  four  feet  wide  trees  had  best 
be  omitted,  as  the  limited  space  is  apt  to  cramp 
the  tree,6  resulting  in  a  dislocation  of  sidewalk,  if 
not  of  the  curb.  Usually  the  tree  should  be 
set  in  the  center  of  the  parking  as  this  position 
is  most  favorable  for  root  development.  An 
exception  may  be  made  in  parkings  of  generous 
width  and  where,  in  a  wide  parking,  it  is  desired 
to  lay  water  and  possibly  other  pipes  inside  the 
curb.  When  not  placed  in  the  center  of  the  side 
parking,  street  trees  should  be  placed  nearer  to  the 
walk  than  the  curb.6 

The  fault  of  setting  trees  too  closely  is  one  of 
the  chief  pitfalls  in  street  tree  planting.  This  re- 
sults from  the  zealous  desire  of  each  property 
owner  to  have  as  many  trees  as  possible  in  front 
of  his  house.  Thirty  to  forty  feet  is  about  a 
proper  distance  apart  for  street  trees.  Trees 
should  be  set  out  with  a  regard  to  the  street  as  a 
whole,  rather  than  to  individual  lots,  and  with  an 

BVid.  Diagram  VI,  Street  Tree  Placing,  p.  182. 
"Vid.  diagram  illustrating  Street  Cross  Sections,  Chap  IV, 
P.  Si- 

181 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 
DIAGRAM  VI. 


TftffS  PLANTED  ON  BOTH  S>OH      TRHS  IN  SWGLt  ROW 
Of  SIOIWA1X  TO  fOUM  ARCH       ON  EACU  SIDE.  OP 
OVER  SlOtWALkC.  STREET 


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OPPOSIU  PIANTING 
STAGGtRED  (OB.  ON  PROPtKTY  LiNtS 
NA6ftO>\5T3ttT  ,  Of  NARROW 


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lOOlS  WITH  OPE.N  CENTER, 


GOOD  BAD 

TV/O  5TTLE5  Of  HOW£  OBOUND   PtA>NTtN(i 


ILLUSTRATION  SUGGESTING  STREET  TREE  PLACING  AND  TWO 

TYPES  OF  HOME  GROUND  PLANTING, 

182 


STREET  TREES  AND   OTHER  PLANTING 

aim  of  framing  in  each  house  as  viewed  from  the 
street  as  far  as  can  be  done.  Their  size  at 
maturity  should  be  carefully  thought  of,  giving 
them  a  spacing  that  will  allow  for  an  uncrowded 
development. 

The  average  street  has  two  rows  of  trees.  The 
individual  trees  are  best  placed  opposite  one  another 
on  each  side  of  the  street  in  case  there  is  as  much 
as  thirty-five  feet  between  opposite  standing  trees. 
If  less,  they  had  better  be  placed  alternately,  which 
is  a  convenient  arrangement  on  narrow  streets. 

The  question  of  the  placing  of  trees  with  refer- 
ence to  the  corner  is  important.  Exactly  at  the 
corner  is  a  bad  position  in  that  ( I )  there  is  danger 
to  traffic  when  the  turn  is  hidden,  and  (2)  it  is 
desirable  to  obtain  the  maximum  of  dignity  and 
breadth  at  each  street  intersection  by  keeping  the 
trees  a  little  way  back  from  it.  Twenty  feet  is 
about  the  right  distance  to  place  trees  from  the 
corner. 

A  beautiful  vista  effect  may  be  obtained  for  the 
pedestrian  by  an  arrangement  of  trees  on  private 
property  corresponding  with  the  row  in  the  park- 
ing, thus  making  an  archway  over  the  sidewalk. 
Again,  if  the  parkway  be  of  sufficient  width  an 
alternately  placed  double  row  may  be  put  in  the 
planting  strip.  On  streets  with  a  wide  center  park- 
ing four  rows  of  trees  may  be  used  with  fine 
effect.  In  cases  where  the  street  is  narrow,  a  line 

183 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

of  trees  may  be  planted  inside  the  property  rather 
than  in  the  parking. 

The  placing  of  trees  in  irregular  groups,  rather 
than  in  rows,  may  be  properly  attempted  when  the 
street  is  curved  and  like  a  country  lane  in  character. 
An  extremely  pleasant  effect  may  be  so  gained. 

Planting  Operations. — A  municipal  nursery, 
where  the  town  may  grow  its  own  trees  at  a 
minimum  cost  for  street  planting,  and  from  which 
it  may  quickly  draw  to  replace  specimens  when 
needed,  is  recommended. 

Top  and  root  pruning  of  trees  is  important.  All 
broken  roots  and  branches  should  be  cut  off  with 
a  sharp  knife  to  prevent  decay  at  the  point  of 
breaking.  Trees  with  a  pointed  growth,  such  as 
the  pin  oak,  should  not  have  their  leader  or  top- 
most branch  cut  back.  In  all  young  trees,  the  side 
branches  rather  than  the  top  should  be  trimmed. 

The  tree  pit  should  be  prepared  with  care  to 
receive  the  tree.  A  hole  about  three  to  four  feet 
in  diameter  and  two  and  one-half  feet  deep  will 
do  very  well  for  a  young  tree  ten  to  twelve  feet 
tall.  As  the  earth  is  thrown  out  the  top  soil  should 
be  set  aside,  to  be  used  in  filling  about  the  roots. 
All  of  the  earth  should  be  mixed  with  about  one- 
fourth  its  own  bulk  and  well-rotted  barn-yard 
manure,  which  not  only  serves  to  furnish  the  tree 
with  plant  food  but  loosens  up  the  soil  and  keeps 
it  friable.  In  places  where  the  soil  is  sandy, 

184 


STREET  TREES  AND  OTHER  PLANTING 

several  sods  cut  from  the  surface  may  be  thrown 
into  the  bottom  of  the  hole  to  conserve  moisture; 
if  the  soil  is  clayey,  three  or  four  good-sized  stones 
placed  in  the  bottom  will  serve  to  insure  drainage. 

As  to  planting,  it  is  a  good  plan  first  to  set  the 
tree  in  the  tree  pit  a  little  lower  than  it  is  to  be 
when  finally  filled  in.  As  the  filling  is  done,  the 
tree  should  be  jogged  up  and  down  which  serves 
to  compact  the  earth  about  the  roots,  and  raises 
the  tree  to  the  position  at  which  it  formerly  stood. 
Poking  the  earth  in  among  the  roots  with  a  stick 
will  go  far  towards  bringing  the  roots  in  contact 
with  the  earth.  No  chance  for  air  spaces  should 
be  left.  Water  may  be  run  into  the  tree  pit  while 
filling  is  done,  except  where  the  ground  is  exces- 
sively clayey,  then  it  should  be  avoided  as  it  may 
seal  up  the  roots  as  the  ground  dries  out. 

The  Subsequent  Care  of  Street  Trees. — Not  less 
important  than  the  operations  spoken  of,  is  the  care 
which  the  tree  is  to  receive  after  planting.  After 
planting  little  pruning  is  needed.  If  the  proper 
kind  of  tree  has  been  chosen  the  hacking  off  of 
limbs,  except  to  repair  damage,  need  seldom  be 
done.  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  process 
of  "dehorning"  should  be  carried  on  every  season. 
Tree  butchery  is  all  too  common,  being  practiced 
in  most  instances  for  no  special  purpose  other  than 
an  unreasonable  feeling  that  "something  should  be 
done."  Low-hanging  branches  up  to  a  height  of 

185 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

eight  feet  from  the  sidewalk  should  be  removed  in 
order  not  to  interfere  with  the  passersby. 

Staking,  and  the  placing  of  guards  about  the 
tree  are  ways  of  insuring  it  a  good  start  Iron 
gratings  in  the  pavement  are  a  means  of  furnish- 
ing the  tree  with  air  and  moisture,  if  placed  in  the 
uncongenial  surroundings  of  a  concrete  pavement. 
Short  pieces  of  pipe  or  tile  sunk  at  an  angle  from 
the  surface  of  the  ground  to  the  roots  is  a  help 
in  watering. 

Cultivation  about  the  base  of  the  young  tree  is 
to  be  recommended.  A  circle  of  turned  up  earth, 
free  from  grass,  three  to  four  feet  in  diameter, 
serves  to  protect  the  young  tree  trunk  from  injury 
from  the  lawn  mower,  and  aids  the  tree  growth 
by  keeping  moisture  in  the  soil.  In  hot  weather  a 
mulch  of  grass  cuttings  may  be  placed  over  this 
open  circle  to  prevent  too  rapid  evaporation. 

Numerous  are  the  illnesses  that  street  trees  are 
heir  to;  leaky  gas  mains  and  insect  pests  are  but 
a  few  of  them.  When  such  causes  exist  stringent 
methods  are  demanded  to  eliminate  them  as  their 
continuation  may  be  fatal  to  large  numbers  of 
trees.  On  the  whole,  a  well-nourished  tree  is  not 
as  subject  to  insect  attack  as  one  which  is  not  in 
good  health. 

Municipal  Supervision  of  Street  Trees. — The 
trees  on  the  streets  of  the  town  are  of  sufficient 
importance  in  the  life  of  the  community  to  war- 

186 


STREET  TREES  AND  OTHER  PLANTING 

rant  that  their  care  and  management  be  made  a 
regular  part  of  local  municipal  administration.  If 
the  citizens  can  be  brought  to  the  state  of  mind 
where  they  will  regard  the  street  tree  not  as 
private,  but  as  public  property  which  it  really  is, 
an  important  step  will  have  been  made. 

It  is  to  be  urged  that  the  trees  of  a  town  be 
placed  under  the  care  of  a  tree  warden,  who  shall 
choose,  plant,  and  care  for  all  of  the  trees  of  the 
city.  The  small  town  might  find  it  possible  to 
combine  the  duties  of  park  superintendent  and  tree 
warden.  Or  again  two  or  more  communities 
might  unite  in  the  employment  of  a  tree  warden 
whose  salary  could  thus  be  paid  in  part  by  each. 
His  duties  would  include  keeping  a  careful  record 
of  the  condition  of  the  trees  on  all  streets. 
Whenever  renewal  or  removal  becomes  necessary, 
the  tree  warden  should  have  full  power  to  act. 
Tree  trimming  and  the  cutting  down  of  street  trees 
should  rest  with  him  alone.  Cities  will  find  that 
street  trees  so  cared  for  become  each  year  an  in- 
creasingly valuable  asset  to  the  community. 

Other  Planting  on  the  Street. — There  are  other 
forms  of  planting  which  contribute  to  the  appear- 
ance of  the  thoroughfare,  if  properly  done. 

Shrub  planting  on  the  public  thoroughfare  is,  as 
a  rule,  to  be  undertaken  cautiously.  In  the  first 
place  unless  the  width  of  the  whole  street  is  gen- 
erous, groups  of  shrubbery  in  the  side  or  center 

187 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 


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STREET  TREES  AND  OTHER  PLANTING 

parking  have  a  tendency  to  make  the  street  appear 
very  much  narrower;  in  the  second,  shrubbery,  if 
carried  up  to  the  corners,  is  apt  to  endanger  traffic 
by  blocking  the  view  at  these  points. 

Shrub  planting  in  the  side  parking,  like  the  ir- 
regular grouping  of  streets  trees,  is  as  a  rule  most 
successful  on  suburban  streets.  It  is  not  best  to 
undertake  such  planting  unless  it  can  be  carried 
out  along  the  entire  block's  frontage,  for  unless  so 
done,  it  appears  isolated  and  forced.  Low  shrubs 
should  be  used  where  shrub  planting  is  done  along 
the  street  in  order  not  to  render  perilous  the  cross- 
ing of  the  street  at  any  point,  particularly  by 
children. 

In  planting  the  center  parking  the  effect  to  be 
aimed  at  depends  upon  the  generosity  of  the  park- 
ing's width.  When  this  is  fairly  narrow  the  aim 
should  be  to  keep  it  from  appearing  any  narrower 
than  it  is;  better  leave  it  as  a  simple  grass  panel 
than  to  narrow  up  the  street's  appearance.  Usually 
it  will  be  found  feasible  to  plant  shrubs  or  small 
ornamental  trees  toward  the  ends  of  each  block- 
unit  of  center  parking;  leaving  the  intermediate 
space  as  open  as  possible.  Even  when  the  center  plat 
is  wide  enough  to  permit  of  park-like  planting  within 
blocks,  the  best  effects  will  invariably  be  obtained 
from  that  character  of  planting  which  brings  out 
a  restful  stretch  of  unbroken  turf  toward  the 
center. 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

The  planting  of  the  side  strip  with  low  growing 
flowers  is  a  practice  which  prevails  in  some  of  the 
cities  of  the  West.  It  would  seem  to  have  in  it 
interesting  possibilities  for  the  beautification  of 
streets,  and  particularly  of  narrow  parkings.  To 
be  effective  this  should  be  done  with  uniformity 
throughout  the  street  or  block.  There  is  no  doubt 
but  that  it  would  add  pleasant  color  to  many  of  our 
all  too  drab  cities. 

An  effective  way  in  which  flowers  may  be  used 
as  a  street  decoration  is  in  window  boxes  in  the 
business  section  and  buildings  which  crowd  near 
to  the  sidewalk  line.  Attaching  flowering  baskets 
to  lamp  standards  and  poles  along  the  street  ap- 
pears a  rather  questionable  method  of  street  em- 
bellishment in  that  it  is  difficult  to  make  flowers 
appear  logically  related  to  surroundings  when 
elevated  above  a  lamp  standard  or  swinging  above 
the  gutter.  Surmounting  the  former  with  flower 
baskets,  no  matter  how  well  constructed,  reminds 
one  something  of  a  stork's  nest.  What  has  been 
done  in  this  way,  however,  deserves  praise  for 
sincere  intention. 

Summary. — Street  tree  planting  is  an  important 
part  of  town  improvement.  It  is  a  means  of  add- 
ing beauty  to  the  town,  and  it  has  an  important 
effect  upon  health.  In  general,  street  tree  planting 
is  a  neglected  part  of  municipal  work,  the  responsi- 
bility being  shifted  between  property  owner  and 

190 


STREET  TREES  AND  OTHER  PLANTING 

city.  Proper  attention  to  the  choice,  placing,  plant- 
ing and  subsequent  care  of  the  tree  is  essential  to 
secure  best  results. 

The  trees  of  the  community  are  of  sufficient 
importance  to  warrant  that  their  care  should  be 
under  the  supervision  of  a  tree  warden.  A 
municipal  nursery  is  to  be  recommended. 

Other  possible  forms  of  street  planting  are  shrub 
planting  in  the  center  or  in  the  side  parkings  of 
the  street.  Shrub  planting  along  the  parking  strip 
should  be  kept  low  in  order  not  to  narrow  up  the 
apparent  width  of  the  street  and  endanger  traffic, 
particularly  at  the  corners. 


CHAPTER  XV 

AMONG  THE  HOMES 

IN  listing  the  activities  into  which  the  town  plan 
is  divided  it  was  noted  that  the  largest  percent  of 
its  area  is  residential.1  By  devoting  attention  to 
improvement  among  the  homes,  therefore,  the  effect 
upon  the  face  of  the  town  or  city  can  readily  be 
seen. 

As  water  cannot  rise  above  its  own  level,  so 
town  improvement  cannot  rise  above  the  ideals  of 
the  majority  of  the  citizens.  Town  improvement, 
like  charity,  may  well  begin  at  home  and  the  home, 
which  we  take  to  mean  the  house  plus  its  surround- 
ings, is  an  important  indicator  of  the  state  of  the 
community. 

The  Housing  of  the  People. — The  thought  has 
already  been  expressed  that  homes  exist  in  practi- 
cally all  parts  of  the  city.  Like  plants,  clinging  by 
necessity  to  whatever  soil  is  offered,  and  there  mak- 
ing what  growth  they  can,  so  homes  permeate  even 
the  concentrated  business  section. 

*Cf.  Chap.  II,  p.  25. 

192 


AMONG  THE  HOMES 

The  reasons  which  prompt  to  the  acceptance  of 
an  abode  in  uncongenial  often  miserable  and  un- 
healthful  surroundings,  are  not  hard  to  discover; 
low  rent,  nearness  to  work,  with  a  minimum  of 
expense  and  of  time  in  travel  to  and  fro,  a  chance 
for  frequent  intercourse  with  one's  own  kind,  and 
not  least,  the  opportunity  offered  free  of  charge  to 
enjoy  the  enlivening  sights  of  the  city.  The  over- 
crowding of  population  in  some  parts  of  our  cities, 
has  given  rise  to  the  housing  problem.  Specific  rea- 
sons for  its  existence  may  be  given  as  follows  :2 

"The  housing  problem  is  due  to  high  land  values  on 
the  one  hand  and  inadequate  transportation  facilities 
on  the  other.  .  .  .  High  land  values  are  due  to  the 
demand  for  land.  This  in  turn  involves  the  inten- 
sive use  of  land  by  the  owner  in  order  to  secure  a 
commercial  return  on  the  investment.  This  means 
high  buildings,  high  rents,  and  congestion." 

The  housing  problem  may  be  said  to  be  the  large 
city's  problem.3  The  growing  smaller  community, 

*  The  Modern  City  and  Its  Problems,  by  F.  C.  Howe,  p.  276. 

8  Fearful  congestion  in  living  conditions  in  some  of  the 
larger  cities  in  our  country  has  arisen  as  a  result  of  poor 
housing.  In  New  York  twenty  families  or  more  are  crowded 
upon  the  spot  where  a  generation  ago  one  family  lived.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Tenement  House  Commission  of  New  York 
City,  the  most  congested  block  in  that  city  is  occupied  by 
four  thousand  five  hundred  and  fifty-six  persons,  or  an  aver- 
age of  one  thousand  persons  to  the  acre.  Bad  as  are  the 
conditions  here  described,  probably  the  worst  country  wide 
housing  conditions  found  have  been  those  of  England  and 
Germany. 

193 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

however,  should  give  thought  to  making  conditions 
such  that  no  serious  housing  problem  will  ever  arise. 

Solving  the  Housing  Problem. — Much  has  been 
done  to  regulate  building  construction,  supplying 
light  and  air  in  needed  amount,  and  giving  privacy 
to  separate  families  and  members  of  families,  and 
thus  to  obviate  immediately  malignant  living  con- 
ditions, but  regulation  does  not  wholly  relieve  con- 
gestion, nor  reduce  rents.  The  most  obvious  course 
open  would  therefore  seem  to  be  a  policy  which 
will,  by  a  reduction  of  taxes  upon  newer  houses  and 
improvements,  and  an  increase  in  rapid,  cheap,  and 
adequate  transportation  service,  make  it  possible 
for  citizens  to  live  in  less  congested  outlying  dis- 
tricts at  the  same  offered  rental,  and  without  ma- 
terial loss  of  time  in  travel  to  and  from  work. 

In  our  own  country,  and  particularly  abroad,  in 
late  years,  a  good  deal  has  been  accomplished  in 
the  way  of  establishing  model  tenements  and  creat- 
ing industrial  communities  toward  the  edge  of 
town,  where  for  a  small  rent,  and  amid  refining 
suburban  surroundings,  the  benefits  of  an  un- 
crowded  existence  can  be  had  for  the  workman 
living  on  fairly  low  wage.  These  efforts  promise 
much  for  the  solution  of  the  problem. 

Residential  Architecture. — The  incongruous  mix- 
ture of  architectural  styles  presented  in  a  single 
block  in  the  average  American  town  would  prove  a 
source  of  amusement  to  us  were  we  not  so  accus- 

194 


1 


MODERATE  PRICED — BUT  A  BEAUTIFUL  LITTLE  HOME. 

No  vacant  months  in  this  landlord's  list. 


A    SUCCESSFUL    ATTEMPT    AT    MAKING    A    THREE-FAMILY    HOUSE 
ATTRACTIVE 

Houses  in  Cleveland,  Ohio. 


AMONG  THE  HOMES 

tomed  to  it.  Town  growth  has  been  so  irregular 
that  the  good  taste,  and  the  harmony  which  char- 
acterizes residential  architecture  in  the  older  parts 
of  the  country,  has  been  almost  entirely  lost 
sight  of. 

On  our  residential  streets  we  see  ostentation  run- 
ning riot  and  individual  whim  unbridled.  The 
democracy  of  our  institutions  is  reflected  in  the 
architecture  of  our  towns  and  cities,  which  seems  to 
be  created  upon  an  enforcement  of  the  principle 
that  all  men  are  created  equal  in  the  right  to  build 
as  atrociously  and  illogically  as  they  please.  Uni- 
versal regulation  in  house  architecture,  it  must  be 
admitted,  is  more  than  can  be  expected.  In  re- 
stricted residential  tracts  which  have  been  put  upon 
the  market  by  a  single  company,  regulations  are 
often  put  upon  the  homes  to  be  built  with  an  aim 
of  producing  a  general  harmony  of  building  types 
on  various  streets.  The  fact  that  tracts  where  such 
supervision  is  exercised  are  often  the  show  places 
of  town,  is  an  instance  of  the  possibilities  of  bring- 
ing residential  architecture  under  regulation  com- 
patible with  a  reasonable  amount  of  individual  free- 
dom of  expression. 

House  Planning  and  Location. — In  planning  a 
house  the  general  interior  arrangement  should  be 
the  first  consideration.  The  choice  of  style  is  a 
matter  of  taste.  It  is  a  wrong  way  to  plan  to  con- 
sider first  the  appearance  or  the  facade,  and  there- 

195 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

after  plan  the  rooms  to  fit  the  outside.  Our  Ameri- 
can domestic  architecture  is  fortunately  conforming 
more  and  more  to  the  type  of  airy,  well  lighted  in- 
teriors and  fairly  proportioned  exteriors. 

On  the  whole  it  would  be  wiser  to  plan  our 
houses  more  for  use  and  less  for  appearance  alone. 
Any  facing  of  the  lot  may  be  utilized.  Our  homes 
too  often  disregard  this  fact,  and  a  stereotyped  plan 
is  followed.  Kitchens  near  the  front  end,  and  liv- 
ing porches  and  living  rooms  at  the  back,  if  the 
best  use  of  the  property  warrants,  are  arrangements 
that  we  may  be  perfectly  right  in  having.  Many 
town  lots  are  such  that  the  question  of  house  loca- 
tion involves  merely  keeping  the  structure  back  a 
certain  required  distance  from  the  street.  Where 
the  lot  is  of  larger  dimensions,  where  the  ground 
surface  rises  or  falls,  and  where  conditions  allow 
for  a  particular  use  of  natural  features,  the  plac- 
ing of  the  house  on  the  lot  becomes  a  more  diversi- 
fied problem. 

Planning  the  Home  Grounds. — The  activities 
which  are  carried  on  within  the  house — the  receiv- 
ing of  guests,  private  enjoyment,  and  the  duties  of 
housekeeping,  have  their  counterpart  in  the  grounds 
about  the  house  and  suggest  a  logical  method  of 
arrangement.  Following  up  this  idea  we  may  say 
that  there  are  three  main  divisions  or  parts  of  the 
home  grounds.  These  divisions  are  (i)  the  Pub- 
lic Portion — that  part  which  the  public  sees;  (2) 

196 


AMONG  THE  HOMES 

the  Private  Portion — created  primarily  for  the  en- 
joyment of  the  occupants  and  friends;  and  (3)  the 
Service  or  the  Working  Portion. 

The  Public  Portion  comprises  the  lawn  or  front 
yard.  This  is  properly  looked  upon  as  giving  a  set- 
ting to  the  house  for  the  benefit  of  passers-by.  Trees 
here  are  best  arranged  to  frame  in  the  house  as 
viewed  from  the  street.  Groups  of  shrubs  may  be 
introduced  at  the  intersection  of  walks  and  drives, 
and  at  lot  corners,  but  these  should  not  break  up  the 
continuity  of  the  front  lawn. 

The  Private  Portion  should  be  readily  accessible 
from  the  living  part  of  the  house  and  so  arranged 
that  it  may  be  freely  used  without  undue  exposure 
to  the  public  eye.  This  is  a  usable  part  of  the  home 
grounds  which  few  people  appreciate;  they  think  of 
the  home  grounds  as  comprised  of  front  yard  and 
laundry  yard  only.  The  private  portion  should  be 
the  most  enjoyable  part  of  all.  It  may  be  made  up 
of  a  simple  open  area  of  turf,  bordered  by  shrubs 
and  flowers,  or  it  may  be  an  area  planned  as  a 
garden. 

The  Service  Portion  embraces  the  kitchen  or 
laundry  yard  and  all  other  outdoor  working  parts, 
such  as  garage  court,  kitchen  garden,  etc.  This  is 
best  screened  off  by  lattice  or  planting  from  the 
public  and  private  portions,  and  should  be  readily 
entered  from  kitchen  or  cellar  and  accessible  by  a 
path  of  its  own  from  the  street. 

197 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

In  planning  out  the  home  grounds  the  arrange- 
ment should  be  such  that,  though  each  part  is  sepa- 
rate and  serves  a  distinct  purpose,  together  they 
form  a  well  organized  whole. 

Planting  the  Home  Grounds. — In  creating  the 
divisions  above  mentioned  the  use  of  plant  material 
will  be  found  convenient,  economical  and  attractive. 
Planting  serves  one  of  two  purposes,  either  the 
utilitarian  or  esthetic.  When  we  use  plants  for 
screening  or  for  fruit,  the  purpose  is  utilitarian; 
when  we  plant  a  flower  garden  or  place  shrubs 
about  the  base  of  the  house  for  the  attractiveness 
of  their  appearance,  the  purpose  is  esthetic.4  At 
times  these  purposes  merge  in  the  planting  of  the 
home  grounds,  but  usually  they  are  distinct. 

In  regard  to  the  planting  of  shrubbery  and  trees 
on  the  home  grounds  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that 
it  is  desirable  to  increase  rather  than  diminish  the 
apparent  size  of  the  lot.  Therefore  trees  singly  or 
in  groups  near  the  boundary  will  be  better  than 
groups  or  single  specimens  in  the  center  of  an  open 
lawn.  Native  plants  rather  than  those  unusual  in 
form  and  color  are  desirable.  A  few  simple  gen- 
eral rules  will  be  of  assistance: 

i.  Plant  varieties  in  groups  rather  than  singly  for  the 
sake  of  a  mass  effect. 

*A  practical  point  to  keep  in  mind  in  connection  with 
foundation  planting,  is  not  to  plant  high  shrubs  in  front  of 
cellar  windows  as  this  results  in  dark,  damp,  airless  cellars. 
Very  low  plants  may  be  used  if  any  are  thought  necessary. 

198 


AMONG  THE  HOMES 

2.  Preserve  the  largest  lawn  area  possible  by  keeping 

planting  toward  the  edges. 

3.  Conceal  the  boundaries  where  possible,  for  by  so 

doing  the  imagination  suggests  greater  extent. 

4.  Plant  with  an  irregular,  flowing  edge,  for  natural- 

istic effect. 

In  regard  to  the  planting  of  vines  on  porches,  it 
will  be  far  more  effective  to  feature  one  vine  on  a 
veranda  than  to  plant  a  mixture  of  three  or  four 
varieties  as  is  commonly  done. 

What  to  Plant  on  the  Home  Grounds. — It  is  not 
necessary  to  have  on  a  place  every  variety  of  plant 
that  appears  in  the  nursery  catalogue ;  better  effects 
can  be  obtained  by  using  a  few  good  varieties  in 
considerable  quantities. 

The  following  lists  will  serve  for  a  suggestion  as 
to  good  varieties  of  plants  for  most  sections: 

TREES  FOR  SHADE  AND  LAWN 

Norway  Maple  Oriental  Plane  or  Sycamore 

Sugar  Maple  Horse-chestnut 

American  Elm  American  Linden 

Box  Elder  Mountain  Ash 

White  Ash  Pin  Oak 

Green  Ash  Lombardy  Poplar 

Liquidambar 

TREES  FOR  SPECIAL  ORNAMENTAL  PURPOSES 

Fringe  Tree  Dogwood,  white  and  pink 

Red  Bud  Weeping  Willow 

English  Hawthorn  Spruce 
Flowering  Peach,  Plum  and         Fir 

Apple  Arborvitse 

Magnolia  Cedar 

Purple  Beech  Red  flowering  Horse-chestnut 

199 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 


ORNAMENTAL  SHRUBS 


Azalea 

Japanese  Barberry 

Weigelia 

Burning  bush  (Evonymus) 

Golden  Bell  (Forsythia) 

Dogwood — red   and   yellow 

branched 
Deutzia 
Elder 

Spiraea — Thunberg  's 
Spiraea — Van  Houtte's 
Missouri  Currant 


Woodbine 

Clematis — Virgin's  Bower 

Clematis  Jackmanii 

Wistaria 

Wild  Grape 

Morning  Glory 


Rose  of  Sharon 

Hydrangea 

Bush  Honeysuckle 

Mock  Orange  (Philadelphus) 

Smoke  Bush 

Snowbeny 

Sumac 

Indian  Currant  or  Coral  Berry 

Lilacs 

Viburnums 

Roses 

Rhododendrons 

VINES 

Boston  Ivy 

Honeysuckle — Hall's  Japanese 

Bitter  Sweet 

Trumpet  Creeper 

English  Ivy 


Bleeding  Heart 

Columbines 

Chrysanthemums 

Coreopsis 

Gas  Plant 

Gaillardia 

Foxglove 

Hollyhock 

Iris 

Larkspur 


Sweet  Pea 
Cosmos 
Nasturtium 
Bachelor  Buttons 
Pansy 


HERBACEOUS  PLANTS 

Lilies  in  variety 
Oriental  Poppies 
Garden  Phlox 
Yucca 
Peonies 
Mallows 
Sweet  William 
Golden  Glow 
Anemone 
Veronica 

ANNUAL  FLOWERS 

Asters 

Four  O 'clocks 
Zinnias 
Candy  Tuft 


The  Planting  and  Care  of  Plants. — Shrubs  are 
planted  in  much  the  same  way  as  described  for 
trees,  except  that  being  smaller  there  is  opportunity 

200 


AMONG  THE  HOMES 

for  more  distinct  massing.  It  is  best  to  turn  over 
all  of  the  earth  in  the  shrub  bed  to  a  depth  of  at 
least  a  foot  and  mix  it  with  manure  before  planting. 
In  planting  it  is  not  best  to  resort  to  separate  holes 
dug  in  the  turf  for  each  shrub,  as  this  method 
makes  lawn  cutting  difficult  and  encourages  the 
spotty  style  of  planting,  where  group  planting 
would  be  preferable. 

Shrubs  are  more  often  planted  too  closely  than 
too  far  apart.  Three  to  four  feet  is  the  proper 
distance  apart  to  plant  them.  A  good  idea  in  plant- 
ing, once  the  bed  is  prepared,  is  to  place  short  stakes 
in  the  bed  as  a  guide  in  determining  where  plants 
are  to  go.  As  holes  are  dug  and  planting  pro- 
gresses, each  plant  should  be  placed  in  the  bottom  at 
first  a  little  deeper  than  the  plant  is  finally  to  be, 
and  as  filling  proceeds,  the  plant  as  with  trees, 
should  be  jogged  up  and  down  in  order  to  induce 
the  earth  to  settle  about  the  roots.  Finally  it  is 
important  that  the  earth  should  be  heeled  in  firmly 
about  the  base  of  each  plant. 

Pruning  is  a  necessary  part  of  the  planting  opera- 
tion. As  the  plant  is  transplanted  its  root  system 
even  with  care  is  impaired  by  the  loss  of  small 
fibrous  roots.  The  pruning  of  the  top  is  done 
in  order  to  reduce  the  work  required  of  this  some- 
what impaired  root  system.  From  one-fourth  to 
one-third  of  the  height  of  the  shrubs  should  be  cut 
off  after  setting.  As  a  rule,  subsequent  to  the  first 

201 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

cutting,  the  shrubs  are  far  better  off  without  fur- 
ther pruning  except  to  remove  dead  or  injured 
parts.  If  the  ultimate  size  of  the  plants  is  carefully 
considered  before  planting,  and  their  position 
chosen  accordingly,  there  will  be  no  need  for  fur- 
ther cutting,  and  no  cause  for  complaint  on  account 
of  excessive  height  and  crowding  over  walks. 
Better  no  shrub  at  all  than  one  cut  to  the  point  of 
disfigurement.  The  beauty  of  shrubbery  is  in  its 
natural  growth. 

Watering  and  summer  cultivation  during  the 
first  season  is  a  great  aid  to  its  growth;  as  it  ma- 
tures, it  need  have  little  care  except  in  excessively 
dry  weather. 

Lawns. — In  the  making  and  care  of  a  lawn  most 
householders  are  lacking  in  knowledge.  England 
possesses  the  finest  lawns  in  the  world.  There  is 
a  saying  there  that  "It  takes  fifty  years  to  make 
a  gentleman  and  one  hundred  years  to  make  a  turf !" 
Which  serves  at  least  to  bring  out  the  thought  that 
a  good  lawn  is  something  which  it  takes  time  to 
produce,  and  something  which  must  be  cared  for— 
a  result  not  of  one  season  but  of  a  number  of  years. 

A  good  lawn  requires  that  the  best  earth  be  saved 
for  the  final  top  layer,  that  it  be  raked  free  from 
stones,  and  carefully  rolled  after  planting  to  press 
the  seed  into  the  soil.  A  good  standard  mixture  of 
grass  seed  for  average  soil  consists  of  the  follow- 

202 


AMONG    .HE  HOMES 

ing:  45%  KentucKy  jlue  Grass,  45%  Red  Top,  and 
10%  White  Clover. 

Spring  is  the  best  time  to  plant  lawns,  but  it  can 
be  done  at  almost  any  time  during  the  growing 
season  provided  that  the  hose  is  at  hand  to  supply 
the  young  grass  with  frequent  waterings.  A  lawn 
should  be  weeded  carefully  and  rolled  occasionally 
as  it  develops,  and  the  mower  should  not  be  set  to 
cut  closer  than  about  two  inches  at  any  time. 

Community  Planting. — Proper  planting  in  the 
single  lot  is  a  source  of  inspiration  to  others  but  it 
by  no  means  equals  the  beauty  of  effect  which  may 
be  secured  when  all  of  the  members  in  the  block, 
or  a  certain  portion  of  the  community,  determine 
upon  and  carry  out  this  kind  of  improvement. 

Besides  uniform  street  tree  planting,  the  plant- 
ing of  private  property  in  the  block  may  be  done 
so  that  the  whole  block  tells  as  a  unit.  Various 
plans  may  be  followed.  Hedges  may  be  featured 
in  the  block,  a  single  kind  of  hedge  being  used 
throughout;  groups  of  planting  may  be  placed  at 
all  front  corners  of  lots  and  at  walk  and  drive  en- 
trances or,  again,  where  houses  are  somewhat  near 
the  street  line,  an  effect  of  openness  and  width  to 
the  street  picture  may  be  secured  by  confining  all 
planting  to  the  vicinity  of  the  foundations  of  the 
homes.  Again,  trees  may  be  eliminated  in  front 
lawns  with  good  effect  when  lawn  spaces  are 

203 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

shallow,  the  trees  of  the  street  parking  being  de- 
pended upon  for  needed  shade. 

There  need  be  no  fear  that  cooperative  planting 
will  give  a  monotonous  appearance.  On  the  other 
hand  it  is  sure  to  exhibit  a  grateful  contrast  to  the 
restless  scattered  aspect  usually  seen,  and  to  have 
added  force  because  done  by  numbers  of  in- 
dividuals. 

Clean  Up  and  Paint  Up. — Not  often  enough 
does  the  spring  house-cleaning  carried  on  within 
the  house  extend  to  other  parts  of  the  home  es- 
tablishment. The  part  of  the  lot  unseen  by  the  pub- 
lic is  apt  to  be  regarded  as  unworthy  of  attention, 
and  in  the  unfortunate  back  yard  and  in  the  rear 
alley  there  gradually  accumulates  such  a  disorderly 
array  of  rubbish  as  even  to  interfere  with  the  use 
of  this  important  part. 

There  are  few  communities  which  would  not 
benefit  by  a  periodical  clean  up  of  private  property. 
Some  towns,  awakening  to  the  importance  of  the 
matter,  have  appointed  clean-up  and  paint-up  days 
on  which  rubbish  of  all  kinds  has  been  carted  off 
at  a  prearranged  time,  and  in  its  place,  order, 
healthfulness,  and  more  use  and  beauty  secured.5 

"Vid.  p.  233,  Survey  Blank  of  Junior  Sanitation  League 
used  at  Decatur,  III.,  in  annual  clean  up  campaign  most  ably 
organized  and  conducted  by  John  F.  Mattes,  Commissioner 
of  Health  and  Safety,  City  of  Decatur. 

204 


AN   AGGRAVATED  CASE  OF   UNTIDINESS 

Show  me  your  townsmen's  backyards,  and  I  will  tell  you  what  kind  of 
citizens  they  are." 


COMMUNITY   PLANTING  IN  A  CITY   BLOCK 

Though  the  lots  are  small,  the  street  picture  is  a  striking  one. 


AMONG  THE  HOMES 

The  following  is  a  suggested  programme  for  a 
special  clean  up  week:8 

SUNDAY. — SPECIAL  SERMONS  IN  ALL  CHURCHES. 

MONDAY. — FIRE  PREVENTION  DAY.  Clean  your 
basements  and  attics  of  rubbish,  greasy  rags  and  waste 
paper. 

TUESDAY.— FRONT  YARD  DAY.  Cut  lawns, 
plant  flower  beds,  clean  walks  and  gutters.  Salt 
cracks  in  sidewalks;  exterminate  ants.  Business 
houses  clean  windows  and  replace  old  awnings. 

WEDNESDAY.— WEED  DAY.  Rid  lawns  of 
dandelions,  trim  bushes  and  gardens.  Rid  city  of  the 
weed  pest. 

THURSDAY.— PAINT  DAY.  Paint  up  inside  and 
out :  porches,  fences,  woodwork  and  porch  chairs. 

FRIDAY.— BACK  YARD  DAY.  Clean  alleys,  re- 
pair fences  and  sheds,  screen  garbage  cans.  Put  fly 
traps  on  garbage  cans.  Put  on  screen  doors. 

SATURDAY.— VACANT  LOT  DAY.  Children  clean 
vacant  lots,  remove  tin  cans,  papers,  and  brush. 

This  contains  good  suggestions.  One  cannot  but 
feel  that  the  household  which  followed  the  pro- 
gramme conscientiously  would  be  well  entitled  to 
take  advantage  of  a  restful  Sabbath  on  the  follow- 
ing day. 

9  How  to  Start  a  Clean  Up  and  Paint  Up  Campaign,  book- 
let by  National  "Clean  Up  and  Paint  Up"  Campaign  Bureau, 
established  1912.  Headquarters  Kinloch  Bldg.,  St.  Louis. 

205 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

Local  organizations  of  business  and  professional 
men  have  frequently  given  special  impetus  to  such 
effort.  Sometimes  these  campaigns  take  the  form 
of  Garden  Contests  7  when  prizes  are  offered  for 
the  best  kept  premises. 

In  one  of  the  paint-up  campaigns  in  St.  Louis  a 
well  known  paint  firm  offered  paint  at  cost  to  the 
firm  for  a  certain  period,  which  proved  to  be  an 
effective  way  of  popularizing  the  movement. 

Town  Extension. — As  a  town  of  normal  life  in- 
creases in  population  there  results  a  steady  move- 
ment toward  the  outskirts.  While  business  con- 
centrates at  the  center  numbers  of  inhabitants  move 
to  newer  dwellings  at  the  edge  of  town  to  get  the 
benefit  of  more  space  and  fresher  air. 

Though  new  land  must  be  developed  in  the  out- 
lying districts  of  every  growing  community,  town 
authorities  are  not  usually  the  ones  primarily  en- 
gaged in  planning  the  new  areas,  though  they  should 
be.  Real  estate  men  and  land  development  com- 
panies in  most  cases  are  the  ones  who  are  busy 
developing  new  outlying  tracts,  grading  streets, 
making  sidewalks,  and  planting  trees  on  new  sub- 
divisions. Having  to  do  with  so  important  a  matter 
as  laying  out  the  future  portions  of  the  town  plan, 
it  seems  strange  that  private  interests  should  be 
allowed  so  free  a  hand  in  a  matter  so  vitally  affecting 

TVid.  reference  to  Davenport,  la.  City  Beautiful  Cam- 
paign, footnote,  p.  225. 

2O6 


AMONG  THE  HOMES 

town  welfare.  As  for  the  town,  it  is  as  though  a  man 
in  need  of  a  suit  of  clothes  were  forced  to  take  any 
one  handed  to  him  by  the  proprietor  of  an  em- 
porium. 

Newly  laid  out  tracts  should  not  only  be  livable, 
and  equipped  with  all  modern  street  conveniences, 
but  streets  should  join  on  to  the  city  plan  so  as  to  be 
a  real  and  not  a  detached  part  of  it.  Communities 
should  require  that  all  plans  for  new  allotments  be 
approved  by  a  competent  local  municipal  authority 8 
before  they  are  allowed  to  be  plotted  as  a  part  of 
the  town  plan.  But  more  than  acquiescence  is 
needed.  Municipal  control  of  town  growth  is 
necessary.  It  is  not  too  much  to  hope  that  before 
long  such  wise  centralized  control  will  be  the  rule 
in  city  and  town  growth. 

The  real  estate  operator  has  an  exceptional  op- 
portunity of  putting  into  practice  the  principles  of 
town  improvement.  Nor  is  taking  advantage  of 
such  an  opportunity  poor  business  since  successful 
real  estate  developers  agree  that  it  pays  them  best 
to  put  on  the  market  the  most  that  can  be  offered 
to  buyers  in  the  way  of  improvement. 

Summary. — The  homes  of  the  town's  inhabitants 

*E.g.,  Sect.  4346,  passed  by  State  Legislature  of  Ohio,  pro- 
vides that  the  director  of  public  service  shall  also  be  the 
planning  commissioner  in  the  city,  and  that  no  plot  of  land 
within  three  miles  of  the  corporate  limits  of  a  city  shall  be 
entitled  to  record  in  the  recorder's  office  without  his  written 
endorsement  and  approval. 

207 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

are  indicative  of  the  real  condition  of  the  com- 
munity. The  housing  problem  is  one  of  the  most 
vital  questions  in  the  life  of  the  large  city.  The 
over  crowded  conditions  are  the  result  of  a  "land 
problem  on  the  one  hand  and  a  transportation  prob- 
lem on  the  other."  Though  serious  housing  prob- 
lems are  not  met  with  in  the  small  community  it 
behooves  the  small  town  to  guard  against  condi- 
tions which  make  such  conditions  possible  later  on. 

Residential  .architecture  is  open  to  suggestions 
for  improvement.  It  is  sometimes  true  that  houses 
"are  built  rather  to  be  looked  at  than  to  be  lived  in." 
The  grounds  form  an  important  part  of  the  home 
establishment,  and  therefore  the  principles  of  plan- 
ning should  be  extended  to  them  as  well.  The 
three  main  divisions  of  both  house  and  the  grounds 
about  it  are  public  portion,  living  portion,  and 
service  portion.  The  function  of  each  part  sug- 
gests something  as  to  its  planning  and  arrangement 
with  reference  to  the  whole. 

A  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  planting  is  help- 
ful in  making  the  home  grounds  attractive.  The 
idea  of  improvement  extends  also  to  cleaning  up  the 
usually  unsightly  and  unusable  parts  of  the  home 
grounds. 

It  is  of  considerable  importance  that,  since  the 
town  must  constantly  extend  its  limits,  new  tracts 
should  be  planned  so  as  to  be  real  and  not  detached 
parts  of  it. 

208 


CHAPTER  XVI 

PAYING  FOR  TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

WHENEVER  town  improvement  is  contemplated, 
three  mental  processes  take  place  in  the  mind,  the 
first  is  a  consideration  of  what  is  needed,  which 
has  to  do  with  a  survey  of  existing  conditions;  the 
second,  a  weighing  of  probable  benefit,  which  has 
partly  to  do  with  bringing  others  to  our  point  of 
view,  and  the  third,  the  question  of  how  to  pay 
the  bills,  which  concerns  itself  with  business 
methods. 

Improvement  Through  Private  Gift. —  A  great 
many  improvements  have  been  bestowed  as  gifts, 
ranging  from  large  tracts  of  land  to  bubble  foun- 
tains at  the  corner.  Amusing  are  some  of  the  inci- 
dents of  bequests  which  have  the  sole  aim  of  letting 
the  donor's  good  works  be  seen  among  men,  and 
keeping  his  name  always  in  sight.  Contrasted  with 
such  are  gifts  which  are  modest  in  spirit,  whose 
only  thought  is  to  do  a  good  deed. 

To  consider  one  kind  of  gift,  namely  land  offered 
by  real  estate  companies  for  parks;  since  numbers 
of  such  offers  are  generous  ones,  it  may  sound  un- 

209 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

grateful  to  suggest  that  before  such  gifts  are 
accepted,  the  motive  of  the  donors  be  looked  into. 
Occasionally  land  is  so  offered  merely  to  release 
the  owners  from  the  expense  of  improving  it,  the 
owners  realizing,  however,  that  improvement  is 
necessary  for  the  sale  of  lots  in  their  property. 

The  habit  of  expecting  everything  to  come  as 
a  gift  from  some  good  fairy  is  as  demoralizing  to 
a  city  as  to  a  citizen.  Splendid  gifts  have  been 
made  by  individuals  it  is  true,  but  in  the  long 
run  it  is  better  for  the  town's  self-respect  that  gifts 
be  an  occasional  rather  than  a  general  occurrence. 

Improvement  Through  Requests  and  Subscrip- 
tions.— Substantial  amounts  can  be  raised  through 
the  active  energy  of  an  interested  few.  There  is 
something  undoubtedly  which  stirs  the  blood  of 
enthusiasts  in  holding  up  the  public  on  tag  days, 
and  in  pursuing  tight-fisted  merchants  for  subscrip- 
tions, headlong  out  of  back  shop  doors,  but  there 
must  always  be  something  akin  to  polite  black- 
mail about  these  methods.  In  face  of  the  immense 
amount  of  good  that  has  been  done  in  this  way 
it  is  hardly  proper  to  condemn  them,  but  after  all 
does  not  the  old-fashioned  sounder  business  method 
of  offering  food  or  entertainment  promise  greater 
returns  in  good  will. 

The  Necessity  of  Considering  the  Question  of 
Costs. — All  improvement  costs  something  of  time, 
money  and  energy.  What  is  worth  having  is  worth 

210 


PAYING  FOR   TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

paying  fo:  and  worth  striving  for.  The  intelligent 
citizen  is  willing  to  grant  that  town  improvement 
is  desirable  and  is  not  to  be  found  fault  with  if 
he  raises  the  question  of  how  it  is  to  be  paid  for  at 
a  cost  not  out  of  proportion  with  the  benefit  re- 
ceived. Enthusiasm  should  not  run  ahead  of  busi- 
ness sense.  Refusal  to  reckon  ahead  is  a  rock  upon 
which  many  an  improvement  enterprise  has  come 
to  grief.  There  must  be  organization  all  along  the 
line,1  else  our  schemes  will  fail  just  where  they 
should  score  their  most  convincing  point.  The 
promoters  of  improvement  must  be  able  not  only 
to  show  the  soundness  of  their  suggestions,  but 
must  be  able  to  present  a  sound  plan  for  financing 
their  schemes. 

Financing  Special  Public  Improvements. — As  a 
general  thing  cities  are  not  in  a  position  to  finance 
from  the  city  treasury,2  offhand,  even  if  they  would, 

1  Cf.  Carrying  Out  the  City  Plan,  by  F.  Shurtleff,  in  col- 
laboration with  F.  L.  Olmsted. 

'The  largest  part  of  the  city's  revenue  is  gained  from  the 
general  tax,  whereby  each  citizen  is  required  to  pay  an 
amount  proportional  to  the  amount  of  property  which  he 
possesses.  The  general  tax  is  of  two  kinds^  (i)  that  on  per- 
sonal property;  (2)  that  on  real  estate,  lands,  and  buildings. 
In  some  states  a  separate  poll  tax  is  levied  upon  all  voters. 

Other  important  sources  of  municipal  revenues  are  the 
franchises  of  public  service  corporations,  and  the  revenues 
derived  from  the  operation  of  public  utilities  such  as  gas, 
water,  and  electric  light  plants.  In  addition  there  are  the 
fees  received  from  the  licenses  of  theaters,  peddlers,  and  so 
forth. 

211 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

all  of  the  improvements  which  many  of  the  citizens 
would  like  to  see  made.  To  spend  in  any  direction 
at  random  would  mean  a  breaking  up  of  the  busi- 
ness plan  under  which  the  corporation  is  operating.3 

If  the  improvement  contemplated  necessitates  but 
a  slight  change  in  the  policy  of  some  special  depart- 
ment of  the  city  administration,  as  for  instance, 
the  lighting  of  parks  or  the  establishment  of  in- 
creased recreation  facilities,  at  some  point  therein, 
this  may  be  brought  about  by  directing  the  atten- 
tion of  members  of  the  Park  Board  to  this  im- 
provement, and  they,  having  a  definite  appropriation 
from  the  city  budget  wherewith  to  meet  the  regular 
park  expenses,  may  direct  the  park  superintendent 
to  carry  out  the  improvement  voted,  and  pay  for 
it  out  of  the  park  funds. 

When  the  improvement  is  farther  reaching,  and 
carries  with  it  considerable  expense,  such  as  the 
straightening  and  widening  of  streets;  or  the 
establishment  of  a  large  park,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
matter  cannot  be  handled  in  the  simple  fashion  just 
described.  The  methods  open  for  the  raising  of 
funds  would  then  be  as  follows:  either  (i)  by  an 
increase  in  the  general  tax  levy;  (2)  by  a  special 

'"The  allowances  for  expenditure  in  each  one  of  the 
various  Municipal  Departments  are  usually  made  out  twelve 
months  in  advance  by  the  mayor  and  passed  through  the  com- 
mon council,  or  as  in  some  places,  made  out  by  a  separate 
board  with  power."  This  financial  plan  is  called  the  City 
Budget.  Am.  Civic  Gov.  Beard.  P.  129. 

212 


PAYING  FOR  TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

local  assessment  upon  property  holders  whose 
property  is  particularly  enhanced  by  the  improve- 
ment; (3)  by  the  issue  of  city  bonds,  or  (4)  as  is 
not  at  present  general,  by  the  process  of  excess 
condemnation. 

A  discussion  as  to  the  policy  to  be  recommended 
for  extended  improvements  leads  to  a  consideration 
of  the  relative  merits  of  the  methods  named. 

General  Taxation  and  Special  Local  Assess- 
ment.— The  final  decision  as  to  the  adopting  of  a 
policy  to  create  an  improvement  and  pay  for  it 
by  taxation  rests  with  the  citizens  themselves  at 
election.  For  an  improvement  which  affects  the 
whole  community,  as  the  creation  of  a  civic  center 
or  a  municipal  playground  system,  a  general  tax 
levy  may  be  proper.  But  when  the  benefit  is  local- 
ized as  in  the  laying  of  a  new  pavement  upon  a 
certain  street,  or  in  the  making  of  a  park  in  a  par- 
ticular neighborhood,  the  method  of  special  assess- 
ment is  coming  to  be  regarded  as  more  logical. 
"Where  there  is  local  benefit  there  should  be  local 
assessment."*  It  is  obviously  unfair,  say  the  ad- 
vocates of  special  assessment,  to  distribute  the 
burden  of  paying  for  an  improvement  over  the 
whole  city  if  the  main  benefit  falls  only  within  a 
restricted  radius.  To  render  the  payment  of  a 
special  assessment  easier  for  the  property  holder, 

4  The  Planning  of  the  Modern  City,  by  M.  P.  Lewis,  p.  364, 
Chap.  Financing  a  City  Plan. 

213 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

the  amount  collectable  is  commonly  spread  over  a 
term  of  years. 

In  the  process  of  assessment,  it  is  a  matter  of 
importance  not  only  that  the  assessment  be  justly 
imposed  with  regard  to  property  holders  along  the 
immediate  line  of  improvement,  but  that  those  off 
of  the  actual  path  of  improvement,  who  benefit  by 
a  rise  in  the  value  of  their  property,  should  meet 
their  share  of  the  expense.  In  large  cities,  where 
the  problem  of  adjusting  such  assessment  becomes 
very  complicated,  there  is  required  a  special  body 
for  this  purpose.5 

Bonding  for  Improvement.  Use  of  the  City's 
Credit. — Improvement  often  involves  the  creation  of 
things  which  are  of  lasting  benefit.  Moreover,  the 
cost  of  large  improvements,  such  as  bridges,  public 
buildings,  and  the  like  is  such  that,  to  pay  for  them 
by  the  levying  of  a  direct  tax,  or  a  special  assess- 
ment, even  though  such  a  tax  or  assessment  were 
allowed  to  be  paid  in  installments,  would  be  to 
impose  an  unjust  burden  upon  the  present  genera- 
tion of  taxpayers.  In  such  a  case  the  method  of 
using  the  city's  credit  or  its  borrowing  ability  is 
made  use  of  in  the  sale  of  bonds. 

The  principle  of  bonds  is  fairly  simple.  When 
an  individual  borrows  money  from  a  bank,  he  gives 
the  bank  a  signed  note  stating  that  he  will  pay  back 

'For  example  in  New  York  City,  the  Board  of  Estimate 
and  Apportionment. 

214 


PAYING  FOR  TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

the  principal  and  interest  for  the  use  of  the 
money  during  the  time  that  the  note  is  running. 
The  principle  of  bonds  is  similar.  The  city  is  the  bor- 
rower, and  at  regular  intervals  it  pays  interest  to  the 
citizen  who  buys  the  bond.  After  a  certain  period, 
which  is  called  the  life  of  the  bond,  the  principal 
is  paid  back  to  the  purchaser,  a  definite  amount 
of  money  being  set  apart  each  year  by  the  muni- 
cipality toward  what  is  called  the  "sinking  fund,'* 
which  is  used  for  the  final  payment.  It  may  seem 
desirable  to  arrange  that  the  bonds  be  retired  at 
different  periods  rather  than  all  at  the  same  time, 
in  which  case  they  are  called  serial  bonds. 

Excess  Condemnation. — Briefly  stated,  the  right 
of  excess  condemnation  implies  the  power  of  the 
municipality  to  take  by  condemnation,  land  border- 
ing a  proposed  improvement,  to  an  amount  greater 
than  is  needed  for  the  actual  improvement;  and, 
by  a  subsequent  sale  after  the  improvement  is  com- 
pleted, of  the  property  so  taken,  to  realize  on  in- 
creased values,  a  portion  or  perhaps  all  of  the  cost 
of  the  improvement  made.  Property  thus  taken 
is  declared  to  be  taken  for  a  public  use.  Though 
theoretically  it  has  wonderful  possibilities,  the 
spirit  of  the  ruling  is  so  contrary  to  the  spirit  of 
individual  rights  as  defined  in  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States,  as  to  bring  about  various  rulings 
in  various  states  in  regard  to  its  legality. 

An    example    of    its    successful    operation    in 

215 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

America  is  frequently  cited  in  the  instance  of  Mon- 
treal,8 where  a  large  profit  was  said  to  be  realized 
by  the  city  through  the  exercise  of  this  right.  In 
London  the  saving  to  the  city  in  the  improvement 
in  Queen  Victoria  Street  is  optimistically  reported 
to  have  been  83%,  and  in  that  of  King's  Way, 
87%.T  Every  result,  however,  has  not  always 
proved  as  fortunate  as  in  the  cases  cited. 

The  plan  of  excess  condemnation  is  only  being 
tried  out  in  this  country.  If  it  proves  successful, 
and  becomes  generally  permissible,  a  new  way  bids 
fair  to  be  opened  for  important  public  improvement 
projects. 

One  great  benefit  would  result  from  its  use.  It 
is  common  after  a  street  is  widened  or  changed  in 
outline,  under  the  present  method  of  simply  con- 
demning property  and  awarding  damages,  to  find 
small  left-over  pieces  of  land  bordering  the  im- 
provement made,  which,  because  of  their  limited 
size  and  peculiar  shape,  are  severally  of  little  value. 
Collectively,  they  are  of  great  value.  Under  the 
fight  of  excess  condemnation  the  replotting  and 
sale  of  such  left-over  pieces  could  be  accomplished 
at  an  increased  price. 

Summary. — Many  improvements  are  bestowed 
upon  the  town  as  gifts,  but  the  habit  of  expecting 
all  improvement  to  come  in  this  way  is  improper. 

9  Excess  Condemnation,  by  R.  E.  Cushman,  p.  144. 
f  City  Planning,  by  C.  M.  Robinson,  p.  256. 

216 


PAYING  FOR  TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

The  question  of  how  the  cost  of  improvement  is 
to  be  met  is  not  to  be  overlooked.  The  advocates 
of  improvement  should  be  able  to  present  a  feasible 
plan  therefore,  if  the  moral  and  the  financial  sup- 
port of  others  is  to  be  counted  upon.  Special 
public  improvements  are  financed  in  the  following 
ways:  Minor  ones  may  be  financed  by  appeal  to 
some  special  department  of  the  city  administration; 
large  ones  by  general  taxation,  special  local  assess- 
ment, the  sale  of  municipal  bonds,  or  by  the  process 
of  excess  condemnation.  The  method  to  be  followed 
is  dependent  upon  the  circumstances  surrounding 
each  case. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  CIVIC  SPIRIT  AND  ORGANIZATION   FOR 
•       TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

THUS  far  in  our  study  the  endeavor  has  been  to 
discover  points  at  which  town  improvement  might 
be  begun.  We  are  now  to  consider  the  ways  of 
rousing  interest  and  of  organizing  for  the  task. 

The  human  element  is  the  dynamic  force  behind 
all  improvement.  Even  after  the  will  to  do  is 
stirred,  there  remains  the  matter  of  guiding  action, 
in  order  that  laudable  energy  may  not  be  misspent. 

What  the  Civic  Spirit  Means. — Loyalty  is  among 
the  greatest  of  human  virtues.  Civic  spirit  implies 
loyalty  to  the  community — to  the  municipality  in 
which  we  make  our  home,  under  whose  laws  we 
agree  to  be  governed,  to  whose  support  we  con- 
tribute, and  \>i  whose  good  name  we  are  justly 
jealous.  Loyalty  presupposes  a  willingness  to  give 
of  time,  energy,  and  financial  support  if  called  upon 
to  do  so.  Civic  loyalty  is  but  a  part  of  that  larger 
loyalty  to  Country  for  which  lives  are  willingly 
offered  in  time  of  need.1 

The  Civic  Spirit  manifests  itself  in  many  ways, 

*An  inspiring  treatise  on  this  subject  is  The  Philosophy  of 
Loyalty,  by  J.  Royce. 

218 


CIVIC  SPIRIT  AND  ORGANIZATION 

in  the  effort  of  the  public  official  who  works  with 
clean  hands  for  the  good  of  the  town,  in  live  com- 
mercial organizations  and  improvement  societies, 
and  in  the  devotion  of  individuals  working  on 
sometimes  in  the  face  of  discouragement,  with  a 
vision  ahead. 

For  a  town  all  things  are  possible.  The  single 
need  is  of  some  person  or  group  of  persons  who 
have  faith  in  the  outcome.  Improvement  cannot 
come  from  without,  nor  be  wished  upon  the  town 
like  a  magic  mantle  in  a  fairy  tale;  it  must  come 
from  within — from  the  loyalty  and  devotion  of  the 
citizens. 

From  the  medieval  town  we  get  a  revelation  of 
the  very  finest  example  of  the  civic  spirit,  an  in- 
spiration to  all  modern  town  improvers.  This  came 
into  flower  at  the  time  of  the  Gothic  Cathedral 
building,  at  its  height  from  the  nth  to  the  I3th 
centuries  in  the  towns  of  northwestern  Europe. 
From  the  purses  of  all  came  contributions  of  money, 
everywhere  the  citizens  giving  as  they  were  able; 
each  trade  added  its  labor  to  the  cause,  the  masons, 
the  workers  in  glass,  the  wood  carvers,  the  metal 
fashioners,  all  working  in  harmony,  until  the 
wonder  in  stone  rose,  as  it  were,  out  of  the  hearts 
of  the  citizens,  "to  the  Glory  of  God  and  the  Glori- 
fication of  the  Town." 

To-day  opportunity  for  such  civic  devotion  is  no 
less  apparent.  We  need  but  to  look  about  us. 

219 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

The  Necessity  of  Business-like  Methods. — It  is 
not  to  be  denied  that  the  mere  suggestion  of  a  move 
for  town  improvement  sometimes  calls  forth  an 
expression  of  suspicion  from  a  certain  type  of  so- 
called  hard-headed  business  man,  and  a  few  other 
private  citizens.  What  is  the  point  of  view  of 
those  who  look  askance  at  the  effort? 

The  hard-headed  business  man  has  been  known 
to  condemn  it  as  impracticable,  and  unnecessary; 
the  suspicious  private  citizen  sees  in  it  only  an  in- 
crease in  taxes.  The  situation  is  not  lightly  to 
be  passed  over,  for  it  is  serious.  It  calls  for  earnest 
endeavor  at  swinging  opinion,  if  town  improve- 
ment is  not  to  meet  with  discouraging  progress. 

If  considered  rightly,  just  here  is  an  oppor- 
tunity of  proving  that  improvement  can  be  con- 
ducted upon  practical  lines,  and  that  it  is  the  im- 
provers' aim  to  do  so,  and  that  town  improvement 
is  itself  profitable. 

When  the  business  man  can  be  brought  to  see 
that  the  number  of  yards  of  goods  sold  over  the 
counter  depends  in  a  real  way  upon  town  improve- 
ment, then  he  will  be  ready  to  give  the  movement 
his  support.  Let  us  imagine  the  case  of  a  town 
which  needs  improvement  in  the  quality  of  its  water 
supply.  An  epidemic  in  such  a  town  would  have 
a  decided  effect  upon  business.  Or  let  us  imagine 
a  part  of  the  business  district  made  more  usable 
and  attractive  by  an  improvement  in  the  street  pave- 

220 


CIVIC  SPIRIT  AND  ORGANIZATION 

ment  or  by  proper  lighting.  The  list  of  possibili- 
ties is  infinitely  long.  The  objector's  platform  falls 
away  when  he  is  face  to  face  with  fact. 

Likewise  the  suspicious  taxpayer  must  be  brought 
to  see  that  the  amount  of  benefit  gained  for  him- 
self and  his  family  by  town  improvement  of  the 
proper  kind  far  outweighs  his  share  in  the  expense. 

The  aim  then  should  be  for  that  kind  of  im- 
provement which  shows  no  waste  of  effort  or  of 
finances,  whereby  the  city  may  be  made  a  more 
effective  working  organism.  Business-like  efforts 
stimulate  a  business-like  carrying  out  of  purpose. 
Wasteful  methods  in  town  improvement  are  no 
more  excusable  than  wasteful  methods  in  business! 

Individual  Effort. — The  helping  along  of  town 
improvement  in  various  lines  is  often  to  be  laid  to 
the  credit  of  one  interested  person.  Individual 
effort  by  its  very  concentration  is  sometimes  able 
to  get  results  with  greater  dispatch  than  if  divided 
among  many.  Many  towns  owe  to  one  person 
their  real  beginning  in  improvement.  A  northern 
Ohio  city,  which  now  possesses  one  of  the  most 
attractive  park  sites2  in  the  country  has  to  thank 
for  this  possession  one  man,  an  attorney  in  that 
community,  who  foresaw  the  opportunity  of  a 
handsome  park  where  steel  industries  were  about  to 
settle.  The  benefit  of  the  park  to  that  particular  city 
has  been  inestimable. 

2 Reference  to  Mill  Creek  Park,  Youngstown,  Ohio;  the 
individual  being,  Mr.  Volney  Rogers. 

221 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

One  of  the  most  notable  examples  of  individual 
effort  for  improvement  which  can  anywhere  be 
found  for  the  encouragement  of  others,  is  the  work 
of  Mrs.  Isaac  L.  Rice  of  New  York  City,  who 
silenced  the  noise  in  New  York  harbor.  Herself 
annoyed  by  the  disquieting  whistles  of  the  boats, 
and  realizing  the  multiplied  annoyance  to  hospital 
inmates  and  others,  she  took  up  single-handed,  a 
crusade  to  bring  the  noise  nuisance  to  an  end. 
Persecuted  by  the  boatmen,  who  tried  to  make  it 
as  unpleasant  as  possible  for  her  and  to  intimidate 
her  in  her  effort  by  flashing  searchlights  into  her 
windows  and  producing  jarring  discords  close  to 
her  home  overlooking  the  river,  she  at  length  won 
a  fight,  which  resulted  in  nation-wide  apprecia- 
tion of  the  fact  that  comparative  quiet  can  be  main- 
tained where  superfluous  noise  is  harmful.  Of 
this  kind  of  individual  effort  we  have  instances  in 
other  lines  to  draw  upon  for  our  own  encourage- 
ment. Each  citizen  may  find  in  town  improvement 
a  field  of  limitless  helpful  attainment. 

The  Value  of  Organization  for  Town  Improve- 
ment.— Valuable  and  interesting  as  is  the  work 
wrought  by  individuals,  it  is  readily  appreciated 
that  the  work  of  a  number  of  persons  banded  to- 
gether gains  from  the  zeal  of  each,  and  suffers  less 
from  the  suspicion  of  being  backed  by  "crank" 
methods.  Combined  effort  gains  dignity  and 

222 


CIVIC  SPIRIT  AND  ORGANIZATION 

strength  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  persons 
enrolled. 

The  establishment  of  a  definite  organization 
among  individuals  is  therefore,  as  time  goes  on, 
almost  as  necessary  to  final  accomplishment  as 
fixedness  of  purpose.3  The  cause,  as  a  rule,  will 
be  helped  if  the  organization  is  of  formal  rather 
than  informal  character. 

In  a  number  of  towns  and  cities  stimulus  has 
been  gained  from  the  existence  of  sectional  or- 
ganizations working  in  friendly  competition,  such 
as  neighborhood  clubs,  ward  improvement  societies, 
and  the  like.  There  is,  however,  one  word  of  cau- 
tion to  be  interposed  regarding  those  whose  in- 
terest is  entirely  local,  and  that  is  that  local  zeal 
should  not  carry  its  members  to  the  point  of  block- 
ing the  work  of  rival  organizations.  Local  organ- 
ization should  be  kept,  but  it  is  at  its  best  when 
united  under  a  larger  town  organization,  in  order 
that  in  sectional  interest,  the  larger  interest  of  the 
town  as  a  whole  may  not  be  lost  sight  of.  As  in 
our  city  it  is  our  desire  to  have  a  system  of  streets, 
not  unregulated  traffic  ways,  so  in  town  improve- 
ment we  would  have  an  organized  whole  whose 
parts  are  working  towards  a  common  end,  without 

"The  first  permanent  organization  of  this  kind  in  the 
country  was  the  Laurel  Hill  Assn.  of  Stockbridge,  Mass., 
founded  in  1853.  See  constitution  of  this  organization  which 
offers  helpful  suggestions,  and  a  description  of  its  work 
printed  by  permission,  at  the  end  of  the  book.  P.  234  et  al. 

223 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

dissipation  of  energy,  and  without  unhealthy 
rivalry.  Herein  lies  the  benefit  to  be  derived  from 
a  community  chorus  and  a  community  pageant,  in 
which  the  whole  town  takes  a  part. 

The  Creating  of  an  Improvement  Organization.— 
It  is  a  good  idea  for  those  specially  interested  in 
the  forming  of  an  organization  to  plan  far  enough 
ahead  that  their  ideas  and  intentions  are  definitely 
formulated  against  the  time  when  others  are  in- 
vited to  enroll  in  the  movement.4  One  or  two 
meetings  at  the  homes  of  persons  primarily  inter- 
ested, may  well  be  held  with  the  purpose  of  talking 
over  definite  concrete  methods  of  procedure  and 
the  formation  of  the  organization.  As  the  saying 
is,  first  plan  the  work,  and  then  work  the  plan. 

The  formation  of  a  constitution  for  the  society, 
is  one  of  the  first  steps.  In  this  the  name  and 
objects  of  the  society  should  be  definitely  stated, 
and  regulations  given  regarding  membership.  As 
the  membership  should  be  made  as  large  and  wide- 
spread as  possible,  dues  should  be  comparatively 
low.  Twenty-five  cents  a  year  is  not  too  low,  as 
the  funds  of  the  society  are  to  be  raised  by  other 
means,  and  dues  are  intended  primarily  to  attach 
significance  to  membership  in  the  organization. 

The  Work  of  Organizations. — From  every  state 
in  the  union  there  come  encouraging  records  of 
strides  along  town  improvement  lines,  due  to  the 

*  See  Community  Development,  by  F.  Farrington,  Chap.  IV. 
224 


CIVIC  SPIRIT  AND  ORGANIZATION 

work  of  various  organizations.  The  impetus 
gained  originally  from  individuals  or  from  societies 
who  regarded  town  improvement  as  complete  when 
the  town's  face  and  hands  had  been  washed,  has 
been  such  as  to  carry  them  beyond  this  first  stage. 
They  realize  with  a  wider  attitude  of  mind  that 
"more  than  a  scrubbing  is  needed  to  make  Bill  a 
manly  and  model  youth."  It  is  a  good  plan  first  to 
turn  attention  towards  ends  involving  little  expense. 
Each  set  of  individuals  should  first  prove  itself  with 
small  tasks,  and  thereafter  take  up  larger  problems. 
In  considering  the  work  and  spirit  of  a  few  of 
the  many  improvement  organizations,  it  will  be 
interesting  to  note  a  single  quotation  chosen  almost 
at  random  from  the  splendid  list  of  reports  pre- 
pared especially  for  the  American  City  by  the  Civic 
Chairman  of  the  45th  State  Federation  of  Women's 
Clubs.  Mrs.  Sarah  S.  Platt  Deeter  of  Denver, 
Colorado,  thus  ends  her  report: 

Do  all  your  work  cheerfully  and  patiently; 

If  you  fail,  do  that  splendidly. 

Above  all,  adopt  the  old  preacher's  definition  of  per- 
severance : 

Firstly,  to  take  hold;  secondly,  to  hold  on;  thirdly, 
never  to  let  go. 

Special  committees  of  Associations  of  Commerce 
and  city  clubs  have  been  effective  agencies  of  im- 
provement.8 

6  It  is  appropriate  to  call  to  mind  such  well  conducted 
225 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

In  a  good  many  communities  the  Boy  Scouts  or- 
ganization have  frequently  lent  a  helping  hand  in 
special  work,  as  for  example  in  the  systematic 
inspection  and  reporting  of  sanitary  conditions.6  In 
a  campaign  for  improvement  special  attention 
should  be  given  to  soliciting  the  aid  of  local  news- 
papers, and  in  securing  interesting  illustrated  lec- 
tures on  different  phases  of  subject.  The  extension 
departments  of  state  educational  institutions  may 
be  looked  to  for  advice  and  help. 

There  are  to  be  found  a  number  of  State  and 
National  organizations  aiming  at  civic  improve- 
ment in  its  various  branches.  Among  these  are 
the  American  Civic  Association,  which  is  an  out- 
growth of  the  American  Park  and  Outdoor  Art 
Association,  the  Civic  Sections  of  the  National 
Federation  of  Women's  Clubs,  the  various  State 
Municipal  Leagues,  the  American  Society  of  Muni- 
cipal Improvement,  the  American  City  Planning 
Institute,  the  National  Housing  Association,  the 

movements  as  that  of  the  City  Beautiful  Campaign  which 
has  been  conducted  for  several  years  by  the  Rotary  Club  of 
Davenport,  Iowa.  Several  hundred  dollars  were  offered 
yearly  in  a  number  of  cash  prizes  for  the  best  examples  of 
home  ground  planting  and  flower  and  vegetable  gardens. 
"Make  your  neighbor  sit  up  and  take  notice"  and  "You  win 
if  you  loose/'  were  slogans  used  with  effect.  One-third  of 
the  homes  in  the  city,  it  is  said,  became  enrolled  in  the  contest. 
*Vid.  Survey  Blank;  Junior  Sanitation  League,  Decatur, 
111.,  p.  227. 

226 


CIVIC  SPIRIT  AND  ORGANIZATION 

SURVEY  BLANK* 

Junior  Sanitation  League 

To  John  F.  Mattes,  Commissioner  of  Health  and  Safety  City 
of  Decatur: 

I  inspected  on  (date) 

the  property  at  (street  and  number) 

owned  by 

,  occupied  by 

,  and  find  the 

following  conditions: 

(Check  existing  conditions) 

D     i  •  Manure  pile. 

D     2.  Garbage. 

D     3.  Tin  cans. 

D     4.  Ashes. 

D     5.  Weeds. 

D     6.  Full  privy  vault. 

D     7.  Tumble  down  shed. 

D     8.  Old  lumber  and  rubbish. 

D     9.  Dirty  chicken  or  barn  yard. 

D  10.  Neglected  well. 

D  ii.  Uncovered  rain  barrel  or  bucket. 

D  12.  Tumble  down  fence. 

D     All  conditions  satisfactory. 

D     Backyard  flower  or  vegetable  garden. 


Remarks: 


Respectfully  submitted, 
(Signed) 

Name  of  Inspector 

Section  No 


3  Printed  by  permission. 

227 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

American  Institute  of  Architects,  the  American 
Society  of  Landscape  Architects,  and  others. 

City  Planning. — Prominent  among  efforts  for 
town  and  city  improvement  is  the  city  planning 
movement.  It  is  really  a  new  municipal  interest, 
but  the  outgrowth  of  the  need  for  organization  in 
one  of  the  oldest  of  arts — that  of  town  and  city 
building.  The  rapid  growth  of  towns  and  cities 
in  the  last  century  has  produced  startling  and  at 
the  same  time  grave  results.  The  framework  and 
physical  equipment  of  the  city  has  been  created 
haphazard  to  fit  immediate  rather  than  future 
needs.  City  Planning  or  Town  Planning  as  the 
term  is  used  in  England,  is  the  "attempt  to  exert 
a  well-considered  control  on  behalf  of  the  people 
of  a  city  over  the  development  of  their  physical 
environment  as  a  whole."  7  It  is,  to  put  the  matter 
simply,  "the  substitution  of  order  for  chaos  in  city 
growth." 

The  term  "city  planning"  suggests  possibly  to  the 
layman  the  creating  of  towns  and  cities  out  of 
whole  cloth.  It  is  rarely  that  this  opportunity  is 
to  be  encountered.  Its  scope  is  more  usually  that 
of  exerting  remedial  measures,  and  in  guiding  the 
new  growth  of  existing  communities. 

The  work  of  city  planning  in  America  has  in 
itself  been  in  the  process  of  evolution.  It  required 

'Definition.  F.  L.  Olmsted.  City  Planning,  Ed.  by  John 
Nolen,  p.  i. 

228 


CIVIC  SPIRIT  AND  ORGANIZATION 

a  term  of  years  for  the  effort  to  live  down  the 
idea  that  the  movement  meant  anything  other  than 
the  "city  beautiful."  Methods,  too,  have  some- 
times been  at  fault.  Too  often,  after  obtaining 
expert  advice — embodied  in  a  handsome  volume, 
and  accompanied  by  expensive  plans,  all  has  been 
thrown  aside  or  "put  into  cold  storage"  when  the 
cost  of  contemplated  improvements  was  realized 
and  the  first  burst  of  enthusiasm  had  subsided. 

When  properly  considered  and  sanely  undertaken 
city  planning  is  seen  to  be  a  movement  potent  of 
incalculably  beneficial  results — a  movement  of 
noble  and  extremely  practical  purpose  for  towns 
and  cities. 

Carrying  Out  a  Plan  for  Town  Improvement. — 
Talk  is  cheap,  and  printer's  ink  a  commodity  of 
little  greater  value.  Unless  improvement  can  be 
put  into  action  and  carried  through,  public  interest 
and  elaborate  financial  schemes  count  for  nothing. 
Town  improvement  schemes  do  not  stand  shelving. 
Whether  large  or  small  they  should  be  put  through 
while  they  are  warm.  The  work  of  improvement 
must  be  carried  on  in  the  light — people  are  suspi- 
cious of  what  they  cannot  see. 

The  greatest  possible  plea  for  town  improvement 
will  lie  in  the  plea  of  economy.  Money  talks 
never  more  eloquently  than  in  schemes  for  town 
improvement.  Improvement  need  not  imply  elab- 
orate expenditures.  As  a  representative  from 

229 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

Pennsylvania  said  at  a  recent  improvement  con- 
ference— "Train  the  people  to  think  in  mills  rather 
than  in  millions." 

People  favor  constructive  rather  than  destructive 
planning.  Propositions  which  are  constructive  in 
character  are  much  more  likely  to  be  acceptable 
than  those  which  involve  a  great  amount  of  tear- 
ing out  before  construction  can  be  begun. 

The  responsibility  for  the  execution  of  plans  for 
improvement  should  be  definitely  located  in  the 
hands  of  an  individual,  official  or  clearly  defined 
group  which  is  to  see  the  work  through.  If  the 
work  be  of  size  and  great  commercial  importance, 
a  Planning  Commission  for  its  carrying  out  should 
be  appointed  if  possible.8  Upon  the  personality  and 
integrity  of  those  in  direct  charge  will  depend  the 
success  of  the  movement.  Since  in  the  hands  of  the 
citizens  lies  the  real  impetus  of  any  independent 
movement,  it  is  to  the  people  of  the  town  that  the 
appeal  should  be  made,  and  from  whom  the  real 
support  should  come.9 

'State  law  and  charter  amendments  have  frequently  been 
necessary  to  provide  for  the  establishment  of  local  city  plan- 
ning Commissions.  In  an  increasingly  large  number  of  states 
this  is  being  done.  For  progress  made,  vid.  Carrying  Out 
the  City  Plan,  by  F.  Shurtleff  and  F.  L.  Olmsted ;  also  What 
a  City  Planning  Commission  Can  Do,  pamphlet  by  F. 
Shurtleff. 

9 How  to  Organize  a  City  Planning  Campaign,  by  F.  L. 
Olmsted.  Reprint  102,  Am.  City. 

230 


CIVIC  SPIRIT  AND  ORGANIZATION 

Summary. — A  proper  civic  spirit  expresses  itself 
in  a  willingness  to  do  for  the  town.  It  is  needful 
that  the  work  of  improvement  be  characterized  by 
business-like  methods  in  order  that  it  may  gain 
support.  Though  individual  efforts  count  for  much, 
organized  effort  is  capable  of  still  more.  All  work 
should  be  carried  on  cheerfully  and  patiently. 

The  city  planning  movement  is  prominent  among 
the  present-day  movements  for  improvement.  Its 
aim  may  be  defined  as  forethought  applied  to  the 
creation  of  cities. 

In  putting  a  plan  for  town  improvement  into 
action,  the  main  points  to  be  kept  in  mind  are  ( i ) 
that  the  plan  should  be  carried  through  while  the 
idea  is  warm;  (2)  that  improvement  schemes 
should  be  carried  through  in  the  light;  (3)  that  the 
plan  be  economical  in  its  proposals,  and  (4)  that 
responsibility  for  conducting  and  carrying  out  plans 
for  improvement  should  be  definitely  located  in 
order  to  secure  their  accomplishment. 


CONCLUSION 

IN  our  consideration  of  town  improvement  we 
come  at  length,  like  a  graduating  class,  to  the  time 
when  the  valedictory  is  pronounced,  and  those  who 
have  been  together,  go  forth  to  put  into  practice 
the  best  of  what  they  have  learned. 

These  principles  of  town  improvement  represent 
the  threshold  only.  We  have  considered  some,  not 
all,  of  the  methods  and  ideals,  but  it  is  hoped 
enough  to  stimulate  thought  and  effort. 

It  is  said  that  the  citizens  of  Athens  swore 
allegiance  to  their  city  in  a  remarkable  oath,  which 
was  as  follows:1 

We  will  never  bring  disgrace  to  this,  our  city,  by 
any  act  of  dishonesty  or  cowardice,  nor  ever  desert 
our  suffering  comrades  in  the  ranks ;  we  will  fight  for 
the  ideals  and  sacred  things  of  the  city,  both  alone  and 
with  many;  we  will  revere  and  obey  the  city's  laws 
and  do  our  best  to  incite  a  like  respect  in  those  above 
us  who  are  prone  to  annul  or  set  them  at  naught; 
we  will  strive  unceasingly  to  quicken  the  public's  sense 
of  civic  thought ;  thus  in  all  these  ways  we  will  trans- 

1 C,  H.  Huff,  Greater  St.  Louis,  in  the  St.  Louis  Star. 
232 


CONCLUSION 

mit  this  city  not  only  not  less,  but  greater,  better, 
more  beautiful  than  it  was  transmitted  to  us. 

At  the  present  time  the  duty  of  the  citizen  to 
his  community  is  no  less  strong  and  compelling. 
In  the  chance  for  the  improvement  of  towns  and 
cities  lie  fields  of  boundless  opportunity.  To  recall  a 
thought  already  expressed;  towns  and  cities  stand 
in  need  of  continual  change  as  modes  of  life 
change  and  expand.  New  needs  must  be  met. 
What  more  inspiring  to  the  citizen  than  the  task  of 
taking  upon  himself  his  share  in  guiding  this 
growth,  typical  as  it  is  of  the  onward  and  upward 
march  of  civilization! 

THE  TOWN  OF  NO  GOOD 

Kind  friends,  have  you  heard  of  the  town  of  No  Good, 

On  the  banks  of  the  river  Slow, 

Where  "some  time  or  other"   scents  the  air, 

And  the  soft  Go-Easies  grow? 

It  lies  in  the  valley  of  What's  the  Use, 
In  the  province  of  Let-Her-Slide ; 
It's  the  home  of  the  reckless  "I  don't  care/' 
Where  the  Give-it-ups  abide. 

The  town  is  as  old  as  the  human  race, 
And  it  grows  with  the  flight  of  years; 
It  is  wrapped  in  the  fog  of  the  idler's  dreams. 
Its  streets  are  paved  with  discarded  schemes  and  sprinkled 
with  useless  tears. 

—  From  The  Bulletin,  Oakland,  California,  April,  1915. 
233 


APPENDICES 
I.  THE  LAUREL  HILL  ASSOCIATION  3 

"In  1853,  a  Village  Improvement  Society,  the  first 
permanent  association  of  the  kind  in  the  United 
States  and  perhaps  in  the  world,  was  organized  as  a 
result  of  long  and  untiring  effort  by  Miss  Mary  Gross 
Hopkins,  afterwards  Mrs.  J.  Z.  Goodrich.  To  this 
society,  which  was  incorporated  under  the  name  of 
THE  LAUREL  HILL  ASSOCIATION  OF  STOCKBRIDGE,  the 
premises  above  described  were  conveyed. 

"The  work  done  by  the  association  in  improving  and 
embellishing  the  village  has  transformed  it  from  the 
untidy  condition  common  to  New  England  as  well  as 
other  American  towns  a  half  a  century  ago,  to  one 
of  the  prettiest  and  best  ordered  villages  in  the  coun- 
try. Moreover,  the  indirect  influence  of  the  associa- 
tion in  promoting  and  cultivating  the  aesthetic  taste 
of  the  community  can  hardly  be  estimated.  From 
gifts  and  bequests  it  has  an  invested  fund  and  with  the 
income  from  this  source  and  from  annual  subscrip- 
tions it  is  on  a  solid  working  basis,  and  promises  as 
long  as  efficiently  managed  to  continue  to  add  to  the 
attractions  of  the  village,  already  unusual." 

"The  historical  sketch  of  the  Laurel  Hill  Association,  its 
constitution,  and  the  pertinent  suggestions  by  a  former  sec- 
retary, which  follow,  are  printed  by  permission.  The  author 
is  grateful  for  this  permission  feeling  sure  that  from  them 
valuable  ideas  may  be  gleaned. 

235 


CONSTITUTION 

OF 

THE  LAUREL  HILL  ASSOCIATION 

OF 

STOCKBRIDGE,  MASS. 


ARTICLE  I 

This  Association  shall  be  called  "THE  LAUREL  HILL 
ASSOCIATION  OF  STOCKBRIDGE." 

ARTICLE  II 

Its  object  shall  be  to  improve  and  ornament  the 
streets  and  public  grounds  of  Stockb ridge,  by  planting 
and  cultivating  trees  and  doing  such  other  acts  as 
shall  tend  to  improve  and  beautify  the  village. 

ARTICLE  III 

Members  of  the  Association  shall  be  chosen  viva 
voce  by  the  Association;  or  by  the  Executive  Com- 
mittee. 

236 


THE  LAUREL  HILL  ASSOCIATION 

Members  may  be  expelled  for  cause  by  a  two-thirds 
vote  of  members  present  at  a  meeting  of  the  Associa- 
tion duly  called. 

ARTICLE  IV 

The  annual  dues  shall  be  one  dollar  ($1.00). 

Non-payment  of  the  annual  dues  for  two  years 
shall  be  considered  equivalent  to  a  resignation  of 
membership. 

ARTICLE  V 

Honorary  Members  may  be  elected  by  a  vote  of 
the  Association. 

ARTICLE  VI 

The  officers  shall  consist  of  a  President,  four  Vice- 
Presidents,  a  Secretary,  a  Treasurer  and  an  Executive 
Committee,  part  of  which  shall  be  ladies. 

The  President,  Vice-Presidents,  Secretary  and 
Treasurer  shall  be,  ex  officio,  members  of  the  Execu- 
tive Committee. 

ARTICLE  VII 

The  President  shall  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the 
Association  and  of  the  Executive  Committee.  In  his 
absence  one  of  the  Vice-Presidents  shall  fill  the  place. 
If  none  of  these  be  present  the  chair  shall  be  occupied 
by  a  President,  pro  tempore. 

237 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

ARTICLE  VIII 

The  Secretary  shall  keep  a  list  of  the  members  of 
the  Association  and  a  correct  record  of  its  proceedings 
in  suitable  books;  shall  make  a  report  at  the  Annual 
Meeting  of  the  doings  of  the  Association  for  the 
preceding  year,  and  shall  give  notice  of  all  meetings 
of  the  Association,  and  of  the  Executive  Committee. 
The  notice  of  committee  meetings  shall  be  written 
or  printed,  and  shall  be  mailed,  or  otherwise  delivered, 
not  less  than  a  day  before  the  meeting. 

ARTICLE  IX 

The  Treasurer  shall  keep  all  moneys  belonging  to 
the  Association,  report  the  state  of  its  finances  at  each 
monthly  meeting  of  the  Executive  Committee  and 
whenever  a  report  is  officially  called  for,  and  dis- 
burse its  funds  only  in  accordance  with  Article  XIV. 

ARTICLE  X 

The  Executive  Committee  shall  not  be  less  than  fif- 
teen or  more  than  twenty-five  in  number,  exclusive 
of  members  ex  officio,  and  shall  have  power  to  fill 
vacancies  or  add  to  its  number  within  the  last  men- 
tioned limit. 

ARTICLE  XI 

The  Executive  Committee  shall  employ  all  laborers, 
make  all  contracts,  expend  all  moneys,  direct  and 
superintend  all  improvements  by  the  society  at  its  dis- 

238 


THE  LAUREL  HILL  ASSOCIATION 

cretion,  and  procure  speakers  for  the  anniversary 
meeting.  It  shall  hold  meetings  monthly  from  May 
to  October,  and  as  much  oftener  as  it  may  deem  ex- 
pedient. It  shall  also  have  power  to  institute  a  system 
of  premiums  to  be  awarded  for  planting  and  protect- 
ing ornamental  trees  and  for  other  improvements. 

ARTICLE  XII 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Executive  Committee  next 
preceding  the  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Association,  a 
committee  to  be  known  as  the  "Nominating  Com- 
mittee" shall  be  appointed  to  report  at  such  Annual 
Meeting  a  list  of  Officers  and  of  the  members  of  the 
Executive  Committee  proposed  for  the  coming  year. 
At  such  Annual  Meeting  a  ballot  for  officers  and  mem- 
bers of  the  Committee  shall  be  had,  and  such  persons 
as  shall  be  chosen  shall  hold  office  until  others  shall 
have  been  elected  in  their  places. 

ARTICLE  XIII 

The  village  shall  be  divided  into  districts  convenient 
for  the  work  of  the  Association.  Committees  of  three 
persons  for  each  district  shall  be  appointed.  Such 
committees  shall  have  charge  within  their  respective 
districts  of  the  work  authorized  by  the  Executive 
Committee,  and  of  the  appropriations  for  such  work. 
Special  committees  selected  from  the  Association  at 
large  may  be  appointed  by  the  Executive  Committee. 
i  The  Nominating  Committee  appointed  under  Arti- 
cle XII  shall  recommend  to  the  Executive  Committee 

239 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

at  its  first  meeting  the  names  to  compose  the  different 
Committees. 


ARTICLE  XIV 

No  bills  for  labor  or  material  shall  be  paid  unless 
approved  in  writing  by  the  Supervisor  or  Special 
Committee  procuring  the  same,  and  no  bill  shall  be 
so  approved  which  is  for  a  sum  greater  than  the 
appropriation  for  the  special  purpose  covered  by  such 
bill. 


ARTICLE  XV 

I 
The  annual  meeting  of  the  Association  shall  besheld 

at  some  convenient  place  in  the  village  of  Stockbridge 
in  the  morning  of  the  first  Thursday  in  September 
in  each  year.  Notices  of  said  meeting,  stating  time 
and  place,  shall  be  posted  at  the  Post  ofHce  at  least 
seven  days  prior  to  said  meeting.  Other  meetings  of 
the  Association  may  be  called  by  the  Executive  Com- 
mittee, on  seven  days*  notice  as  above  prescribed. 

ARTICLE  XVI 

The  Anniversary  Exercises  of  the  Association  shall 
take  place  on  Laurel  Hill  in  the  afternoon  of  such  day 
in  September  as  the  Anniversary  Committee  may  ap- 
point, or,  in  case  of  bad  weather,  at  such  time  and 
place  as  may  be  designated  by  the  Anniversary  Com- 
mittee. 

240 


THE  LAUREL  HILL  ASSOCIATION 
ARTICLE  XVII 

At  the  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Association  the 
Executive  Committee  shall  report  the  number  of  trees 
planted  under  its  direction,  and  the  doings  of  the 
Committee  in  general.  This  report  shall  be  entered  on 
the  minutes  of  the  Association. 

ARTICLE  XVIII 

Ten  members  present  at  any  meeting  of  the  Asso- 
ciation and  five  members  present  at  any  meeting  of 
the  Executive  Committee  shall  constitute  a  quorum 
for  the  transaction  of  business.  The  Committee  shall 
have  power  to  adopt  By-Laws  for  the  Association  not 
inconsistent  with  this  constitution. 

ARTICLE  XIX 

No  debt  shall  be  contracted  by  the  Executive  Com- 
mittee beyond  the  amount  of  its  available  means. 

ARTICLE  XX 

This  constitution  may  be  amended  by  a  vote  of 
two- thirds  of  the  members  present  at  any  meeting 
of  the  Association;  but  no  amendment  shall  be  acted 
upon,  unless  notice  of  such  proposed  amendment 
briefly  describing  the  nature  thereof,  shall  have  been 
given  with  the  notice  of  the  meeting. 

241 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

"Letters  requesting  information  and  advice  as  to  the 
proper  method  of  forming  and  managing  organiza- 
tions like  this  little  association  are  constantly  received 
from  all  parts  of  the  Union. 

'•'As  now  amended,  the  present  modest  constitution 
furnishes  substantially  the  information  thus  sought. 
The  following  suggestions  by  a  former  Secretary  of 
the  association  may  be  added. 

"i.  Funds  to  a  considerable  amount  to  serve  as  a 
nucleus  for  investment  as  well  as  for  immediate  use, 
should  be  secured  before  starting  work. 

"2.  Annual  subscriptions  should  be  obtained,  and 
when  practicable  pledged  some  years  in  advance,  so  as 
to  insure  the  permanence  of  the  organization  and  the 
continuance  of  its  work. 

"3.  Endeavors  should  be  made  to  interest  all  classes. 
Children  might  be  permitted  to  set  trees  themselves 
under  direction  of  the  Association. 

"4.  It  is  well  to  begin  operations  at  some  point  in 
which  the  whole  community  is  interested,  such  as  the 
Cemetery,  or  the  Public  Green  or  Square.  Avoid  too 
much  at  once. 

"5.  To  keep  up  the  public  interest  in  the  association 
and  to  look  after  its  work,  it  is  important  to  have 
monthly  meetings  of  the  executive  committee.  These 
are  provided  in  the  Laurel  Hill  Society's  Constitution. 
In  very  small  communities,  the  meetings  might  be 
pleasanter  and  less  formal  if  held  at  the  residences 
of  members  instead  of  a  public  hall." 

242 


II.  QUESTIONS  IN  REVIEW  OF  THE  TEXT 

Introductory. 

1.  What  human  aims,  in  brief,  do  towns  and  cities 
represent  ? 

2.  What,  roughly  stated,  is  the  general  proportion 
of  city,  town,  and  country  population  in  the  United 
States? 

3.  State  the  ratio  of  urban  to  rural  population  in 
the  United  States  as  given  in  the  1910  Census  report, 
giving  the  limitation  of  the  term  "urban" 

4.  Explain    the    significance    of    the    term    "urban 
drift." 

5.  What  is  the  relation  of  physical  make-up  to  the 
inner  life  of  the  town  or  city? 

Chapter  I. — Forces  Creating  the  Town. 

1.  What   five   main   forces   can  be   named  as   in- 
fluencing the  creation  of  towns? 

2.  Comment    upon    the    influence    of    each    force 
specifically. 

3.  From  what  you  know  of  history  what  is  to  be 
said  of  the  manner  of  death  which  towns  and  cities 
may  undergo? 

4.  In  how  far  is  the  argument  sound  that  towns 
cannot  be  arbitrarily  created  and  prove  successful? 

243 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

5.  Trace  the  parallel  which  exists  between  the  life 
cycle  of  a  town  and  that  of  a  living  body. 

6.  Comment  upon  the  subject  of  the  Town  as  an 
Organism. 

7.  What  can  you   say  as  to  the  individuality  of 
Towns  and  Cities? 

Chapter  //.— The  Town  Plan  in  General. 

1.  Describe  as  accurately  as  possible  by  means  of  a 
diagram  the  general  plan  of  your  home  town. 

2.  By  means  of   another   diagram  of  your  home 
town  illustrate  the  location  of  the  six  groups  of  ac- 
tivities named  in  the  early  part  of  the  chapter. 

3.  What  is  the  distinction  to  be  noted  between  loca- 
tion and  site? 

4.  Describe  various  typical  locations  for  towns  ac- 
cording   to    purpose.      From    reading    or   your   own 
experience,  name  towns  which  illustrate  the  points 
mentioned. 

5.  Comment  upon  the  relation  of  site  to  civic  beauty. 
In  how  far  may  a  community  hope  to  attain  beauty 
regardless  of  its  site? 

6.  Comment  upon  the  relation  of  site  and  topog- 
raphy to  the  town's  layout. 

Chapter  III.— The  Street  System. 

1.  What  economic  arguments  may  be  urged  for  an 
efficient  street  system  for  a  town? 

2.  What  four  main  types  of  street  systems  are  to 
be  found  in  towns  and  cities?     Give  an  account  of 

244 


QUESTIONS  IN  REVIEW  OF  THE  TEXT 

the  development  of  each  type  with  illustrations,  if 
possible. 

3.  Describe  the   circumstances   under   which   each 
type  named  is  to  be  recommended  for  use  in  the  lay- 
ing out  of  towns  or  parts  of  towns. 

4.  Give  a  classification  of  the  streets  of  the  town 
or  city  according  to  use. 

Chapter  IV.— Traffic  Circulation. 

1.  What  is  to  be  said  of  the  relation  of  traffic 
circulation  to  conditions  of  business  and  daily  living? 

2.  Comment  upon  the  problem  of  modern  trans- 
portation as  compared  with  that  of  a  century  ago. 

3.  Describe  briefly  the  kind  of  traffic  to  be  accom- 
modated in  the  streets  of  the  town. 

4.  Mention  specifically  the   causes  of   traffic  con- 
gestion. 

5.  What   three   requirements  were  mentioned,  for 
streets,  if  they  are  to  meet  properly  the  demands  of 
traffic? 

6.  Describe  in  detail  how  the  width  necessary  for 
streets  may  be  estimated,  illustrating  with  diagram, 
various  types  of  streets  in  cross  section. 

7.  What  methods  are  to  be  recommended  for  meet- 
ing traffic  problems  and  bringing  about  improvement 
in  traffic  flow? 

8.  Comment  upon  the  subject  of  traffic  regulation 
for  comfort  and  safety. 

Chapter  V.—The  Railroad  and  the  Town. 

i.  Weighing  the  convenience  and  the  inconvenience 

245 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

involved,  what  can  you  say  of  the  justifying  value  of 
the  railroad  to  the  town? 

2.  What  may  be  said  upon  the  subject  of  the  Town's 
rights  with  respect  to  the  Railroad,  and  the  Railroad's 
rights  with  respect  to  the  Town? 

3.  Comment  upon  the  subject  of  the  Railroad  and 
Town  Plan. 

4.  Comment  upon  the  subject  of  the  Railroad  as 
the  Entrance  into  Town. 

5.  What  are  the  advantages  or  disadvantages  of 
a  union  station,  and  describe  locations  which  may  be 
recommended  for  it? 

6.  Make  suggestions  for  improvement  in  regard  to 
the  form,  appearance  and  setting  of  the  railroad  station 
building. 

7.  Make  suggestions  for  the  improvement  of  rail- 
road station  grounds. 

8.  Comment  upon  the  subject  of  dead  end  streets 
occasioned  by  the  existence  of  the  railroad. 

9.  Comment  upon  the  subject  of  grade  crossings 
in  the  town,  stating  what  methods  are  to  be  recom- 
mended in  securing  their  elimination. 

10.  What  may  be  said  as  to  the  value  of  coopera- 
tion  in   securing   improvement   in   conditions   which 
exist,  between  the  railroad  and  the  town? 

Chapter  VL—The  Waterfront. 

1.  Explain  something  of  the  scope  of  waterfront 
improvement  for  towns  and  cities. 

2.  What  principles  are  to  be  kept  in  mind  regarding 
use  and  beauty  at  the  waterfront? 

246 


QUESTIONS  IN  REVIEW  OF  THE  TEXT 

3.  What  opportunities  for  waterfront  improvement 
are  offered  in  the  town  with  a  small  stream? 

4.  What  opportunities  for  waterfront  improvement 
are  offered  in  the  town  situated  on  a  river? 

5.  What  opportunities  for  waterfront  improvement 
are  offered  in  the  town  on  lake  or  ocean? 


Chapter  VIL— Parks  and  Other  Public  Open  Spaces. 

1.  In  what  sense  are  Parks  and  Open  Spaces  at 
once  the  earliest  and  the  latest  conscious  products  of 
Civic  Art? 

2.  Describe  briefly  and  make  comments  upon  the 
comparative   size  and  characteristic  location  of  the 
various  kinds  of  public  open  spaces  which  are  to  be 
found  in  towns  and  cities. 

3.  Briefly  describe  the  origin  and  character  of  the 
public  or  ornamental  square  and  state  principles  which 
should  be  followed  in  its  layout  and  equipment. 

4.  Describe  briefly  the  character  which  minor  open 
spaces  may  assume  in  the  simple  street  widening  for 
the  purpose  of  enhancing  abutting  property,  in  the 
city  block  park,  and  in  the  street   remnant,   giving 
principles  to  be  followed  in  the  layout  and  equipment 
of  each. 

5.  What  can  you  say  of  the  justifying  value  of  the 
landscape  or  country  park  for  a  community? 

6.  What  considerations  are  to  be  kept  in  mind  in 
choosing  park  sites? 

7.  Is  a  town  always  fortunate  in  having  a  gift  of 
a  park  site? 

247 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

8.  Give  some  principles  which  apply  to  the  layout 
and  equipment  of  the  landscape  or  country  park. 

9.  Comment  upon  the  subject  of  a  park  system  for 
towns. 

10.  Comment  upon  the  subject  of  Park  Acquisition 
and  Management. 

Chapter  VIII. — Schools,  School  Grounds,  and  School 
Gardens. 

1.  What  can  you  say  to  the  importance  to-day  of 
Public  Schools  in  the  life  of  the  community? 

2.  Make  mention  of  the  principles  governing  the 
form,    appearance,    and    equipment    of    the    modern 
school  building. 

3.  What  may  be  said  as  to  the  location  and  setting 
of  the  school  building? 

4.  State  the  main  principles  to  be  followed  in  school 
ground  arrangement. 

5.  What  recommendations  can  you  make  in  regard 
to  the  planting  of  school  grounds  ? 

6.  Comment  upon  the  subject  of  school  gardens. 

7.  Comment  upon  the  subject  of  the  school  as  a 
Community  Center. 

Chapter  IX. — Playgrounds  and  Neighborhood  Centers. 

1.  Mention  briefly  the  aim  and  scope  of  the  Play- 
ground Movement. 

2.  Comment  upon  the  history  of  municipal  play- 
grounds. 

3.  What,  according  to  the  definition  given  by  E.  B. 

248 


QUESTIONS  IN  REVIEW  OF  THE  TEXT 

Mero,  are  we  to  understand  the  term  "playground" 
to  mean  in  its  large  sense? 

4.  Describe  what  you  would  consider  an  ideal  play- 
ground system  for  a  town  or  city. 

5.  What  is  to  be  said  regarding  the  supervision  of 
play  on  the  municipal  playground? 

6.  What  methods  of  procedure  should  the  small 
community  follow  in  securing  public  playgrounds? 

7.  Describe  the  function  and  influence  of  a  well- 
equipped  neighborhood  center. 


Chapter  X.— -Problems  of  Sanitation,  Water  Supply, 
and  Sewage  Disposal. 

1.  Comment  upon  the  statement  that  the  problems 
of  health  cannot  be  separated  from  the  problems  of 
prosperity  in  material  lines. 

2.  What  is  the  average  person's  attitude  with  re- 
gard to  the  subject  of  the  problems  of  sanitation? 

3.  Give  a  brief  historical  account  of  the  subject  of 
municipal  water  supply. 

4.  What  two  main  considerations  are  implied  in 
the  question  of  water  supply? 

5.  What   available    sources    of   water    supply    for 
towns  and  cities  can  you  name? 

6.  What  source  would  you  advise  for  your  own 
town,  and  why? 

7.  Comment   upon   the    amount   of    water   supply 
needed  for  communities. 

8.  Comment  upon  the  advisability  of  including  a 
town's  reservoir  as  a  part  of  the  park  system. 

249 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

9.  What  difference  is  to  be  noted  between  the  terms 
"sewage"  and  "sewerage"? 

10.  What  different  systems  of  sewage  disposal  are 
in  use  by  municipalities?    Describe  each  briefly. 

Chapter    XL — Problems    of   Health,    Comfort,    and 
Safety. 

1.  What  suggestions  occur  to  you  for  securing  air 
and  sunlight  for  the  parts  of  town  where  these  are 
lacking  ? 

2.  What  recommendations  can  you  make  in  regard 
to  food  supply? 

3.  Give  suggestions  upon  the  matter  of  the  collec- 
tion and  the  disposal  of  garbage  and  ashes. 

4.  What  can  you  say  concerning  the  value  of  vari- 
ous waste  products? 

5.  What  are  to  be  considered  the  duties  of  a  Board 
of  Health?     Comment  upon  the  importance  of  the 
work  of  this  body  to  the  welfare  of  the  Community. 

6.  Comment  upon  the  general  subject  of  Nuisances 
and  their  Control. 

7.  Comment  upon  the  subject  of  Smoke  and  Fumes, 
and  make  recommendations  for  improvement. 

8.  Comment  upon  the  subject  of  Winds,  Dust,  and 
Street  Dirt  and  make  recommendations  for  improve- 
ment. 

9.  Comment  upon  the  subject  of  Unnecessary  Noise 
and  Bad  Odors  and  make  recommendations  for  im- 
provement. 

10.  Comment  upon  the  subject  of  The  House  Fly 
and  its  Control. 

250 


QUESTIONS  IN  REVIEW  OF  THE  TEXT 

11.  Comment  upon  the  subject  of  Fire  Waste  and 
make  recommendations  for  improvement. 

12.  What  is  the  aim  and  scope  of  the  Safety  First 
Movement  ? 


Chapter  XIL— Civic  Art. 

1.  Give  what  you  consider  to  be  a  good  definition 
of  Civic  Art. 

2.  What  is  the  two-fold  scope  of  Civic  Art  as  noted 
in  the  text? 

3.  What  principles  are  to  be  recommended  in  the 
choice  and  placing  of  statues  and  monuments  in  the 
town? 

4.  What  can  be  said  as  to  the  suppression  and  im- 
provement of  billboards  and  advertising  signs? 

5.  What  can  be  said  as  to  the  improvement  in  the 
character  and  placing  of  shop  signs? 

6.  What  can  be  said  as  to  the  elimination  of  over- 
head wires  and  poles? 

7.  What    recommendations    may    be    made    as    to 
the    improvement    of    architecture    in    the    business 
section  ? 

8.  Comment  upon  the  subject  of  building  regulation 
and  its  scope. 

9.  What  is  meant  by   the   term   "Civic   Center?" 
State  principles  which  may  be   followed  in  regard 
to  the  civic  center's  position  and  form. 

10.  Comment    upon   the    subject   of    guiding   and 
fostering  public  taste. 

11.  What  is  your  opinion  as  to  the  desirability  of 

251 


TOWN  IMPROVEMENT 

having  an  "Art  Jury"  in  your  town?    Explain  what 
its  duties  would  be. 


Chapter  XIII. — The  Equipment  and  Furnishings  of 
the  Street. 

1.  Why  is  the  Equipment  of  the  Street  to  be  con- 
sidered an  important  matter  in  town  improvement? 

2.  Comment  upon  the  subject  of  street  pavements, 
stating  the  qualities  which  an  ideal  pavement  should 
possess. 

3.  Name  the  types  of  pavements  mentioned  in  the 
text,  describing  the  character  of  each,  making  men- 
tion of  desirable  or  undesirable  qualities,  and  com- 
paring the  worth  of  each  for  various  purposes. 

4.  Describe  the  improvement  that  you  think  might 
be  effected  in  the  average  town  in  the  matter  of  curbs 
and  gutters. 

5.  What  qualities  should  the  sidewalk  possess  to 
fulfill  its  purpose  efficiently? 

6.  Make  specific  comments  on  the  subject  of  street 
lighting. 

7.  Comment  upon  the  matter  of  street  name  signs 
and  systems  of  house  numbering,  making  whatever 
recommendations  you  think  proper. 

8.  What  can  be  said  in  regard  to  the  adequate  pro- 
vision of  comfort  stations  in  most  of  our  towns  and 
cities  ? 

9.  Make    recommendations    as    to    other    street 
equipment. 

252 


QUESTIONS  IN  REVIEW  OP  THE  TEXT 

Chapter    XIV.  — Street    Trees    and    Other    Street 
Planting. 

1.  Compare  ancient  and  modern  cities  with  respect 
to  the  presence  of  street  trees. 

2.  In  what  sense  may  street  tree  planting  be  said  to 
be  a  neglected  part  of  street  making? 

3.  State  what  arguments  you  can,  justifying  the 
presence  of  trees  on  our  streets. 

4.  Under  what  conditions  is  the  presence  of  street 
trees  undesirable? 

5.  In  the  choice  of  street  trees  what  considerations 
are  involved? 

6.  In  the  placing  of  street  trees,  what  considera- 
tions are  involved? 

7.  In  the  planting  of  street  trees,  what  considera- 
tions are  involved? 

8.  What  suggestions  may  be  made  as  to  the  subse- 
quent care  of  street  trees? 

9.  Of  the  two  methods,  private  or  municipal  super- 
vision of  street  trees,  which  is  to  be  recommended  ? 

10.  Give  a  list  of  good  varieties  of  trees  suitable 
for  planting  along  an  average  residence  street. 

11.  Name  some  varieties  of  trees  which  are  com- 
monly used,  but  make  poor  street  trees.     State  their 
faults. 

12.  What  are  the  principal  street  tree  needs  in  your 
home  town? 

13.  What  can  you  say  of  the  planting  of  shrubs 
in  the  side  parking? 

14.  State  some  of  the  principles  which  apply  to  the 
planting  and  care  of  the  center  parkings  of  streets. 

253 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

Chapter  XV. — Among  the  Homes. 

1.  In  what  sense  may  the  home  of  the  average 
citizen  be  said  to  be  an  important  indicator  of  the 
life  of  the  community? 

2.  Comment  upon  the  presence  and  extent  of  the 
housing  problem  in  some  cities  and  state  the  reason 
for  its  existence. 

3.  What   recommendations  may  be  made  toward 
solving  the  housing  problem  when  it  exists? 

4.  What  recommendations  come  to  your  mind  in 
regard  to  the  matter  of  architectural  improvement  in 
the  average  residence  district? 

5.  State   a   few  of  the  principles  which  may  be 
followed  in  regard  to  the  location  and  orientation  of 
the  house  on  the  lot. 

6.  State  the  main  principles  to  be  kept  in  mind  in 
planning  a  general  arrangement  of  the  home  grounds. 

7.  Give   general   rules   governing   the   location   of 
planting  on  the  home  grounds. 

8.  Give  general  rules  governing  the  choice  of  plant 
material  on  the  home  grounds. 

9.  Give  five  names  of  plants  suitable  for  each  of  the 
purposes  named :   (a)  Trees  for  Shade  and  Lawn ;  (b) 
Trees    for   Ornamental    Purposes;    (c)    Ornamental 
Shrubs;     (d)     Vines;     (e)     Herbaceous    Flowering 
Plants;  (f)  Annual  Flowers. 

10.  Give  a  few  simple  directions  as  to  the  planting 
and  the  care  of  shrubs,  including  pruning. 

11.  Give  a  few  simple  directions  as  to  the  making 
and  care  of  the  lawn. 

254 


QUESTIONS  IN  REVIEW  OF  THE  TEXT 

12.  What  are  the  benefits  and  advantages  to  be 
urged  for  community  planting? 

13.  Comment   upon  the   subject  of   clean-up   and 
paint-up  campaigns. 

14.  What  room  is  there  for  future  improvement  in 
the  matter  of  town  extension? 


Chapter  XV L — Paying  for  Town  Improvement. 

1.  Why  is  it  obviously  necessary  that  the  promoters 
of  improvement  should  not  only  be  able  to  show  the 
soundness  of  their  suggestions,  but  to  present  a  sound 
plan  for  financing  their  schemes? 

2.  What  reasons  can  you  give  suggesting  that  the 
town   should   not   rely   upon  gifts   as  a  method  of 
financing  improvement? 

3.  What   method   is   universally  made  use   of  by 
municipalities  for  the  raising  of  funds  for  running 
expenses  ? 

4.  What  methods  may  be  recommended  for  finan- 
cing improvements  of  a  minor  character  in  the  town? 

5.  What    methods    are    to    be    recommended    for 
financing  improvements  of  extensive  character,  but  of 
general  benefit  to  the  present  generation? 

6.  When  is   special  local   assessment  advisable  in 
financing  public  improvements? 

7.  When  is  it  best  to  finance  improvement  by  making 
use  of  the  city's  credit,  through  the  sale  of  municipal 
bonds  ? 

8.  Describe  briefly  the  method  of  financing  special 
improvement  by  the  process  of  excess  condemnation, 

255 


TOWN   IMPROVEMENT 

and  state  the  advantages,  if  any,  which  would  seem 
to  result  from  this  method. 

Chapter  XVIL—The  Civic  Spirit  and  Organization 
for  Town  Improvement. 

1.  Comment  upon  the  Civic  Spirit  as  a  synonym 
of  loyalty. 

2.  Comment  upon  the  civic  effort  of  the  Cathedral 
builders  of  medieval  times,  and  state  in  what  ways 
it  may  be  considered  an  inspiration  to  modern  town 
improvers. 

3.  What  good  arguments  in  behalf   of  town  im- 
provement can  be  offered  to  the  skeptical  business 
man  or  disgruntled  tax  payer? 

4.  In  what  ways  may  individual  effort  count  for 
much  in  town  improvement? 

5.  Comment  upon  the  value  of  organization  for  im- 
provement. 

6.  Give  some  hints  as  to  methods  of  forming  an 
improvement  society. 

7.  Comment  specifically,  from  what  you  have  read 
or  from  your  own  observation,  upon  the  value  of  the 
work  of  improvement  organizations. 

8.  Give  a  definition  of  City  Planning. 

9.  Comment  briefly  upon  the  scope  and  benefits  of 
City  Planning. 

10.  What  general  aims  are  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  put- 
ting a  plan  for  town  improvement  into  action? 

THE  END, 


INDEX 


Advertising  signs,   143-1 47 
American     City     Planning 

Institute,  226 

American  Civic  Associa- 
tion, 226 

American  Society  of 
Landscape  Architects, 
226 

Architecture    in    the    busi- 
ness section,   152 
Architecture    in    the    resi- 
dential  section,    194,    195 
Art  galleries,  24,  151 
Art  jury,  Philadelphia,  158 
Art  for  schools,  94 
Asphalt  pavement,  164 
Asessment,  local  213 
Associations  of  commerce, 
225 

Beauty,    relation    of    town 

site  to,  27 
Billboards,  143,  144 
Boards  of  health,   129-131 
Bonding,      use      of     city's 

credit,  214 
Brick  pavement,  164 
Bridges,  74,  149 
Budget,  the  city,  212 
Buildings,    public    location, 

I5I>  154,  156 


Building  regulation,  153 
Business,    position    of,    on 
town  plan,  23 

Cement  pavement,  164 
Churches,  24 
Cities,  complexity  of,  5 
Cities,    rapid    growth    of, 

5,  13 

City,  planning,  227 
Civic  art,   141-143 
Civic  center,  154-156 
Civic  clubs,  226 
Civic  spirit,  218 
Clean-up  campaign,   204 
Cobblestone  pavement,   163 
Commerce,  as  force  creat- 
ing cities,  ii 

Commercial    activity,   posi- 
tion   of    on    town    plan, 

23 

Community  center,  112 
Concrete  pavement,  164 
Congestion    of    population, 

193 

Congestion  of  traffic,  44 
Constitution  of  Laurel  Hill 

Association,  235 
Cost  of  improvement,  210 

Defense  as  a  force  creat- 
ing towns,  10 


257 


INDEX 

Diseases,    contagious,     130      Home     grounds,     planting 
Dirt,  street,  133  on,  198 

Districting,  154  House  numbering,  170 

Dust,  133  House   planning   and  loca- 

tion, 195 

Extension  of  towns,  206         Housing,   192-195 
Excess  condemnation,  215, 

216  Improvement,      value      of 

early  attention  to,  6 
Financing        improvement,     Individual  effort,  222 

2II    2Ig  Individuality  of  towns,   18 

Fire  protection,  138  Industries,    force    creating 

Fly  crusade,  135,  136  T  *own!'1 *3 

Food  supply  and  inspection      Industrial  section,  24 

of  food,  125,  120 

Forces  creating  towns,  9-15  ^and  values    153 

Laurel  Hill  Asociation,  234 
Lawns,    making    and    care 

Garbage,    care    of    at    the  Of,  202,  203 

house,  127  Libraries,  24 

Garbage,  disposal  of,  126-  Life  cycle  of  town,  16 

I2^  Lighting  streets,    168 

Garden  cities,  194  Location   and   purposes   of 

Garden  contests,  173,  206  towns,  9 

Gardens,   197 

Gift,  improvement  through  Macadam  pavement,  164 

private,   209  Manufactures    and    indus- 

Governmental  activity,  loca-  tries>       forces      creating 

tion    of    on    town    plan,  towns,  13 

24  Markets,  public,  126 

Monuments     and     statues, 

Health,  boards  of,  129  150 

Health,     guarding     public,  Monumental    open    spaces, 

124,  129-131  78,  79 

Historic     landmarks,     pre- 
servation of,  158  National  Housing  Associa- 

Home     grounds,     planning  tion,  226 

of,  196-198  Neighborhood  centers,   112 

258 


INDEX 


Noise,  unnecessary,  134 
Nuisances  affecting  health, 
131,  132 

Odors,  bad,  135 
Open  spaces,  kinds  of,  77 
Open  spaces,  minor,  80-83 
Open   spaces,   monumental, 

78,  79 

Organism,  the  town  as  an, 

17 

Organization  for  town  im- 
provement, 222 

Organizations,  the  work 
of,  224 

Paint-up  campaigns,  204 
Park,  acquisition  and  man- 
agement, 89,  90 
Park,  sites,  choice  of,  86 
Park,  system  for  towns,  88 
Parking,  street,  167 
Parks,  city  block,  82 
Parks,   landscape   or  coun- 
try, 84-86 

Parks,  various  kinds  of,  77 
Paving  of  streets,   162-165 
Physical   make-up,   relation 
of,  to  life  of  the  town,  7 
"Places,"   residential,  81 
Plan,  town,  20 
Plan  of  town  as  patchwork 

of  activities,  22 
Planting  of  home  grounds, 

198 

Play,  importance  of,  107 
Play,  supervision  of,   no 


Playgrounds,   104,   109 
Playground  movement,  105, 

1 06 

Poles  and  wires,  147 
Police  protection,  137 
Political  force,  creating 

towns,  14 
Population,    congestion    of, 

193 
Population,        rural       and 

urban,  3,  4 
Pruning,  trees  and  shrubs, 

200-202 

Pruning,  street  trees,   185 
Public  buildings,  151 

Railroad,  justifying  value 
of  the,  56 

Railroad,  past  and  present 
attitude  concerning,  57 

Railroad  and  the  town 
plan,  59 

Railroad  as  entrance  into 
town,  60 

Railroad  crossings,  elimina- 
tion of,  66 

Railroad  station  building, 
improvement  in  location 
and  appearance  of,  62 

Railroad  station  grounds, 
63-65 

Residential  section  of 
towns,  25 

"Rural,"  definition  of,  2 


Safety  first  movement,  139 
Sanitation,  114 


259 


INDEX 


School,  the,  as  a  commun- 
ity center,  101 
School,  the  modern,  93,  94 
School     building,     location 

of,  95 

School  gardens,  99-101 

School  grounds,  arrange- 
ment of,  96-98 

School  grounds,  planting 
of,  98,  99 

Schools,  evening  use  of 
building,  101 

Schools,  prominence  of 
public,  in  life  of  com- 
munity, 92 

Sculpture,  150,  151 

Sewage  disposal,  115-122 

Sidewalks,  168 

Site  of  towns,  26 

Skyscrapers,   152 

Smoke  and  fumes,  132 

Social  force,  creating 
towns,  15 

Squares,  monumental,  78 

Station,  union,  62 

Statues     and     monuments, 

Stone  block  pavement,  163 
Street  cleaning,   134 
Street    furnishing,    161-165 
Street  lighting,  168 
Street    naming,    and   name 

signs,  169,  170 
Street   pavements,    162-165 
Street  planting,  other  than 

trees,  187-190 
Street  system,  30 


Street    system,    four    types 

of,  31 
Street   system,  the  proper, 

to  employ,  38 
Street  trees,    173-181 
Street   tree   planting,    181- 

185 

Street  trees,  care  of,  185- 

187 
Street      widths,      planning 

proper,  48,  49 

Tax,  the  general,  212,  213 
Town  and  country,  relation 

of,  2 

Towns,  origin  of,  9-15 
Traffic  circulation,  41 
Traffic  circulation,  relation 

of,   to   business   and  liv- 
ing, 42 
Traffic     circulation,     street 

requirements  for,  45-48 
Traffic    congestion,    causes 

of,  44 
Traffic    problems,    methods 

of  meeting,  52-54 
Traffic    regulations,   52-54 
Transportation,       problems 

of  modern,  42 

Union  R.R.  station,  62 

"Urban"  and  "rural"  de- 
fined, 2 

Urban  drift,  2 

Utility,  relation  of  town 
site  to,  28 

,Utility,  place  of,  in  civic 
art,  148,  149 


260 


INDEX 


Waste   products,   value  of, 

128-129 

Water  front,  69,  70,  71 
Water  supply,  115-120 


"Whitewings,"  street  clean- 
ers,  134 

Wires  and  poles,   147,   148 
Women's  clubs,  226 


Water       supply,       amount      Wood  block  pavement,  163 

needed,  118,  119 
Water   supply,   sources   of,      Zoning,   154 

116,  117,  118 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 
LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


26^ai'59RB| 

-- 

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